[Gubook Janggoon]

www.wikipedia.com

*Note when reading romanized Korean follow these rules.

eo=uh
ae=eh
a lone o inbetween two consanants= oh

Creation Myth

This is the story of the creation of the Korean people.

Dangun's (단군; 檀君 ancestry begins with his grandfather Hwanin (환인; 桓因, the "Lord of Heaven" (a name which also appears in Indian Buddhist texts). Hwanin had a son Hwanung who yearned to live on the earth among the valleys and the mountains. Hwanin chose Mount Taebaek (태백산; 太伯山) for his son to settle down in and sent him with 3,000 helpers to rule the earth and provide humans with great happiness. Hwanung descended to Mount Taebaek and founded a city, which he named Sinsi (신시; 神市), or "City of God." Along with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind, he instituted laws and moral codes and taught the humans various arts, medicine, and agriculture.

A tiger and a bear living in a cave together prayed to Hwanung to become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung called them to him and gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort. He then ordered them to only eat this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger shortly gave up and left the cave. However, the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman.

The bear-woman (Ungnyeo; 웅녀; 熊女) was very grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. She lacked a husband, however, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a sandalwood tree to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, who was named Dangun Wanggeom (단군 왕검; 檀君王儉).

Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the reign of the Emperor Yao (a legendary Chinese sage Yao), the year of Gengyin, built the walled city of P'yŏngyang, and called the kingdom Joseon. He then moved his capital to Asadal on Mount Baegak (or Mount Gunghol). 1,500 years later, in the year Kimyo, King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty enfeoffed Jizi to Joseon, and Dangun moved his capital to Jangdangyeong. Finally, he returned to Asadal and became a mountain god at the age of 1,908.


I'll just start off with a brief overview of Korean history and a list of rulers of major kingdoms...and if ya'll like it i'll go nation by nation next...maybe...So basically Wikipedia copy and paste with me making notes here and there adding in stuff...usually when you see * it's me...hope this is helpful to someone...

Korean History Summary

This is Korea



Prehistory

Archaeological evidence shows that people were living in Korea during the Palaeolithic period. The physical culture found in these relics is largely identical with that in finds in Manchuria and Mongolia.
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Ancient history

According to a classic legend, Korea's first large social civilization, Go-Joseon (고조선; 古朝鮮), was founded by the man-god Dangun (Tangun) in 2333 BC. Go-Joseon is considered the first Korean kingdom. The name originally used was Joseon, but later historians started calling it Go-Joseon, or "old Joseon", to distinguish it from the later Wiman Joseon and Gija Joseon (see below). The legend claims that the kingdom was founded by Dangun in southern Manchuria in the basins of the Liao and Daedong Rivers.

According to other ancient transcripts, a kingdom called Gija Joseon was established in 1122 BC, when a Chinese exile Jizi (Gija) led 5,000 followers to the mountainous peninsula and founded the kingdom by merging with existent populations. Historians are still debating the exact order of events. Go-Joseon was later revived as Wiman Joseon, which lasted until 108 BC. It has become common to refer to Wiman Joseon, Gija Joseon and the initial Go-Joseon as parts of a longer Go-Joseon period, this time to distinguish them from the later Joseon Dynasty.
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Various chiefdoms

After the fall of Go-Joseon, many different minor chiefdoms arose in Manchuria and the Korean peninsula. Okjeo and Dongye were located on the eastern coast of modern-day North Korea, and Buyeo was in Manchuria. Okjeo, Dongye, and Buyeo were later conquered by Goguryeo.

In the southern part of the peninsula, three different confederate of chiefdoms existed: Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. According to Later Book of Han, Mahan contained 54 states, Jinhan and Byeonhan contained 14 each.

Among those chiefdoms, Baekje arose in Mahan and Silla in Jinhan. Mahan and Jinhan were gradually conquered/absorbed by Baekje and Silla. Byeonhan became Gaya.
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Chinese commanderies

After Emperor Han Wudi of China's victory over Wiman Joseon (108 BC), the Chinese established four commanderies: Lelang (樂浪)(Korean: Nangnang), Xuantu (玄菟) (Korean: Hyeonto), Zhenfan(真番) (Korean: Jinbeon), and Lintun (臨屯) (Korean: Imdun). Some sources such as [1] (http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-event.html) indicate that a fifth commandery named Bohai (渤海) (Korean: Balhae) was also established, not connected with the later Bohai kingdom. These commanderies held military control over much of Manchuria and part of northern Korea.

The Mahan and Jinhan confederations reconquered three of the commanderies shortly after they were established. They took the Zhenfan commandery and the Lintun commandery in 82 BC. The Xuantu commandery fell in 75 BC (Yang, 1999, p. 41). However, the Lelang commandery survived.

After the Han dynasty perished, the Gongsun clan still ruled some of the commandery area and parts of Southern Manchuria, yet soon their territories were conquered by the kingdom of Wei. Under the Jin Dynasty, the Chinese rule still was present, but since it was a weak dynasty, the Xianbei, Tungus or proto-Mongol nomads took advantage of the situation, creating their own Yan kingdom (not the Yan of the Warring States era).

Goguryeo's conquest of the Lelang commandery in 313 AD marked the end of direct Chinese rule on the Korean peninsula, and the beginning of Goguryeo's rise as a major regional power.

The commanderies were known for their strong cultural influence on Korea. The Chinese occupation of Northern Korea influenced the Southern "Han" tribes and even the Three Kingdoms era. In particular, the Chinese presence is often credited with bringing Confucian scholarship and Chinese script to Korea. Goguryeo set up the first Korean school of Confucian learning in the 4th century AD.
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Three Kingdoms (三國時代/삼국시대)

Main article: Three Kingdoms of Korea

Silla (or Shilla), Goguryeo, and Baekje are called the Three Kingdoms. The confederacy of chiefdoms called Gaya occupied much of the Nakdong River valley until conquered by Silla in 562.

Goguryeo first founded a kingdom in Southern Manchuria in 37 BC, and expanded into North Korea by occupying the Chinese commandery at Pyongyang in the fourth century. The kingdom was at its zenith in the fifth century when occupying the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and today's Seoul area. The Goguryeo kings controlled not only Koreans but also Chinese and other Tsungusic tribes in Manchuria and North Korea. Since the establishment of the Sui Dynasty in China, the kingdom continued to suffer from Chinese invasion until conquered by the allied Silla-Tang forces in 668.

The origin of Baekje is still controversial, but the kingdoms of Goguryeo and Baekje had similar ethnic and linguistic backgrounds and the kingdom was firmly established in the southwest of the Korean Peninsula with its capital at Seoul by the fourth century. Driven by Goguryeo, the kingdom moved its capital southwards to Gongju, and then to Buyeo. Culturally Baekje introduced Chinese civilization through its relationship with the Southern Dynasties in China. Baekje was fundamental in implanting high civilization, including Chinese characters and Buddhism, into ancient Japan with which the kingdom sustained friendly relations all the time. The kingdom of Baekje was conquered by the Silla-Tang forces in 660.

The remaining material culture from the kingdom of Silla including unique gold metalwork shows influence from the northern nomadic steppes, differentiating it from the culture of Goguryeo and Baekje where Chinese influence was more pronounced. Silla expanded rapidly by occupying Seoul and annexing Gaya in the sixth century. Goguryeo and Baekje responded by forming an alliance. To cope with invasions from Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla deepened its tributary relations with the Tang Dynasty, with her newly-gained access to the Yellow Sea making direct contact with the Tang possible. After the conquering of Goguryeo and Baekje with her Tang allies, the Silla kingdom drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula and occupied the lands south of Pyongyang.

Ulji Munduk

Yeon Gaesomun

Korean Armor


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Balhae (or Barhae) (발해) period

The state of Balhae (also written Bohai or Pohai in Roman text) was founded in the former lands of Goguryeo by Dae Joyeong. Balhae controlled the northernmost areas of the Korean Peninsula, parts of Manchuria (but not the Liaodong Peninsula), and expanded into the region which is today's Russian Maritime Province. Balhae styled itself as Goguryeo's successor state. It also modelled itself on the Tang Empire, for example in the layout of its capitals.

In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae culture flourished, especially during the long reign of the third king, Mun Wang (r. 737-793). Like Silla culture, the culture of Balhae was strongly influenced by Buddhism. However, Balhae was severely weakened (many presume in-fighting) by the tenth century, and the Khitan Liao Dynasty conquered Balhae in 926.

No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. Goryeo (see below) absorbed some Balhae territory and received Balhae refugees, including the royal family, but compiled no known histories of Balhae either. The Samguk Sagi, for instance, includes passages on Balhae, but does not include a dynastic history of Balhae (as it does of the Three Kingdoms). The eighteenth century Joseon historian Yu Deukgong was probably the first to advocate the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and it was he who coined the term "North-South Period" to refer to the era when Silla and Balhae existed side by side.
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Goryeo (高儷/고려) Period

The kingdom of Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the dominant power in Korea in the years 935-936. ("Goryeo" is a short form of "Goguryeo" and the source of the English name "Korea.") The kingdom lasted until 1392. During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. In 1231 the Mongols invaded Korea and after 25 years of struggle the royal family surrendered by signing a treaty with the Mongols. For the following 100 years the Goryeo ruled, but under the control of the Mongols.
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Joseon (朝鮮/조선) Period

Main article: Joseon Dynasty

In 1392 a Korean general, Yi Seonggye, was sent to China to campaign against the Ming Dynasty, but instead he allied himself with the Chinese, and returned to overthrow the Goryeo king and establish a new dynasty. The Joseon Dynasty moved the capital to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) in 1394 and adopted Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. During this period, the Hangul alphabet was introduced by King Sejong in 1443.

Joseon (as Korea was called during the Joseon Dynasty) dealt with invasions by Japan from 1592 to 1598 (see Seven-Year War). Korea's most famous military figure, Admiral Yi Sun-sin was instrumental in defeating the Japanese. After the invasions from Manchuria in 1627 and 1636, the dynasty submitted herself to the Qing Empire. On the other hands, Korea permitted the Japanese to trade at Pusan and sent missions to the capital of Edo in Japan from time to time. Europeans were never permitted to trade at Korean ports until the 1880s.

Domestic politics was plauged by internal power struggles among Confucian bureaucrats. In spite of some efforts to introduce Western technology through the Jesuit missions at Beijing, the Korean economy remained backward due to weak currency circulation. Peasants, suffering from famine and exploitation, often fled the country into Manchuria.

Battle of Haenju Sanseong


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19th century

During the 19th century, Korea tried to prevent the opening of the country to foreign trade by closing the borders to all nations but China, resulting in it being called the Hermit Kingdom by many. In 1853 the USS South America, an American gunboat, visited Pusan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local Korean officials there. Several Americans who were shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Chosun court which ruled Korea, was well aware of the colonization of China as well as the Opium Wars there, and still followed a strict policy of isolationism however. In 1866 the General Sherman Incident put Korea and the United States on a collision course.

In 1871, the United States met Korea militarily, in what the Koreans call the Shinmiyangyo and in America is also called the 1871 US Korea Campaign. A rapidly modernizing Japan forced Korea to open its ports and sucessfully challenged the Qing Empire, which claimed sovereignty over Korea, in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). The Japanese assassinated Queen Min, who resisted their exploitation by seeking Russian help, but they were forced to retreat from Korea for a while. In 1897, Joseon was renamed Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire), and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. A period of Russian influence followed, until Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Korea could not effectively resist Japanese aggression except random guerrilla attacks in the mountains. It became a protectorate of Japan on 25 July 1907, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal. In 1910 the country was officially annexed by Japan establishing the Japanese Colonial Period in Korea.
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Period of Japanese Rule

Main article: Period of Japanese Rule

In 1910 Japan annexed Korea by the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. Korea continued to be ruled by Japan until Japan's defeat to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945.

European based transport and communication networks were established across the nation. This facilitated Japanese commerce. The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy, its nobles and its taxation system.

After the former Korean emperor Gojong had died, with a rumor of poisoning, anti-Japanese rallies took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the March 1st (Samil) Movement). This was also inspired by United States president Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self determination and an end to colonial rule. A declaration of independence was read in Seoul and, according to Korean record, an estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-independence rallies. (The Japanese record claims less than half million.) This protest in the countryside was suppressed by Japanese government. An estimated 7,000 were arrested, 553 killed and 1409 wounded.

Continued anti-Japanese rallies, such as the nationwide uprising of students in November 1929, led to the strengthening of military rule in 1931. After the outbreaks of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and World War II Japan attempted to wipe out Korea as a nation. Worship at Japanese Shinto shrines was made compulsory. The school curriculum was radically modified to reflect the changed policies. The celebration of Korean culture was suppressed. Newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean and the study of Korean history was banned at university.

Some Koreans left the Korean peninsula to Gando (part of Manchuria) and Yeonhaeju (part of eastern Russia)). Koreans in Gando formed resistance groups known as Dongnibgun (Independence Army) which would travel in and out of the Korean-Chinese boundary, fighting guerilla warfare with the Japanese forces.

During the Period of Japanese Rule, a self-professed Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai. On December 11, 1941 this "provisional government" declared war again and fought with its Korean Restoration Army alongside the Allied Forces. Seven days after the sundering of the friendship Pact, Soviet tanks invaded Korea from Siberia, meeting little to no resistance. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese rule. US forces under General Hodge, would not arrive to southern part of Korea until September 8th. Colonel Dean Rusk proposed splitting Korea at the 38th parallel at an emergency US meeting to determine spheres of influence during this time.

The Period of Japanese Rule began the industrialization and development of Korea (e.g. the introduction of a western style educational system, transportation networks, public health infrastructure, etc.) to Koreans. This is often used as a defense of Japanese policies, while opponents point out that Japanese commercial interests were always put first and that native economic development was much hindered.

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The division of Korea

Main article: Division of Korea

The unconditional surrender of Japan, the earlier collapse of Nazi Germany, combined with fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology, led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones effectively starting on September 8, 1945, with the United States administering the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union taking over the area north of the 38th parallel. This division was meant to be temporary and was first intended to return a unified Korea back to its people until the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a trusteeship administration.

At the Cairo Conference on 22 November 1943, it was agreed that Korea would be free "in due course as one unified country”; at a later meeting in Yalta in February 1945, it was agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea. In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea. A 5-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the UN General Assembly.

Initial hopes for a unified, independent Korea quickly evaporated as the politics of the Cold War and opposition to the trusteeship plan from Korean anti-communists resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate nations with diametrically opposed political, economic, and social systems. In June 1950 the Korean War broke out, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being. See History of North Korea and History of South Korea for the post-war period.

The United States established a capitalist, pro-American government in the south named the Republic of Korea (대한민국 / 大韓民國) (http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/대한민국) while the Soviet Union enabled Kim Il-sung to take power and establish a communist, pro Soviet government in the northern half of the Korean Peninsula called the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (조선민주주의인민공화국 / 朝鮮民主主義人民共和國).


Korean Rulers
*Note Accuracy of the rulers of Gojoseon and the Buyeos unkown as some seem to have been taken from Handangogi, an unverified source. Handangogi is often cited by extreme nationalists and has been called blashpemy by more accepted and moderate sources. All the other kings should be ok though.
Notes

Kingdoms/Empires are listed in the order of their fall. Thus, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla are listed an order that is the reverse of their traditional order of formation.

This list includes only the monarchs' romanized posthumous or temple names and reign dates. The reign dates come from http://www.rootsinfo...ndex_sub02.html (in Korean only), with additional information from Rulers.org and from Nahm (1988).

Names have been romanized according to the South Korean Revised Romanization of Korean. McCune-Reischauer romanizations of names may be found at the articles about the individual rulers.
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Go-Joseon (2333 BC? - 239 BC?)고조선 古朝鮮

The mythical founder of Go-Joseon was Emperor Wanggeom.

The time for the end of Joseon is disputed. Some record records the abdication of last emperor, Emperor Koyulga, in BC 239. Other accounts record the date as BC 1137. The period of reign for each emperor is not listed as neither account currently prevails. According to one account, the dynasty's name was changed to Daebuyeo in BC 425. The emperor used the title of Tanje, which literarilly means emperor under the birch.

1. Emperor Wanggeom
2. Emperor Buru
3. Emperor Gareuk
4. Emperor Osagu
5. Emperor Gueul
6. Emperor Dalmun
7. Emperor Hanyul
8. Emperor Usuhan
9. Emperor Aseul
10. Emperor Noul
11. Emperor Dohae
12. Emperor Ahan
13. Emperor Holdal
14. Emperor Gobul
15. Emperor Daeum
16. Emperor Wina
17. Emperor Yeoul
18. Emperor Dongum
19. Emperor Gumoso
20. Emperor Goheul
21. Emperor Sotae
22. Emperor Saekbullu
23. Emperor Aheul
24. Emperor Yeonna
25. Emperor Solna
26. Emperor Churo
27. Emperor Dumil
28. Emperor Haemo
29. Emperor Mahew
30. Emperor Naehew
31. Emperor Deungowl
32. Emperor Chumil
33. Emperor Kammul
34. Emperor Orumun
35. Emperor Sabul
36. Emperor Maereuk
37. Emperor Mamul
38. Emperor Damul
39. Emperor Duhol
40. Emperor Dalum
41. Emperor Eumcha
42. Emperor Eulwuji
43. Emperor Mulli
44. Emperor Kumul
45. Emperor Yeoru
46. Emperor Boeul
47. Emperor Koyeolga

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Buyeo (?239 BC-494) 부여 夫餘

Buyeo is believed to have risen from the areas of Joseon in 2nd-3rd century BC. They claimed the inheritance of Joseon, and the rulers continued to use the titles of Tanje or the emperor. According to some accounts, Buyeo was divided into two countries, Bukbuyeo and Dongbuyeo, in 108 BC. Bukbuyeo was later succeeded by Goguryeo, but Dongbuyeo, ruled by the heirs of Emperor Haemosu, was shattered by Goguryeo in 22 AD. Dongbuyeo declined to meagre existence until 494, when they capitulated to Goguryeo.

1. Emperor Haemosu (239 BC-195 BC)
2. Emperor Morisu (195 BC-170 BC)
3. Emperor Gohaesa (170 BC-121 BC)
4. Emperor Gowuru (121 BC-86 BC)

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Bukbuyeo (?108 BC-?58 BC) 북부여 北夫餘

The rulers of Bukbuyeo retained the use the title of Tanje, or the emperor.

1. Emperor Godumak (108 BC-60 BC)
2. Emperor Gomuseu (60 BC-58 BC)

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Dongbuyeo (?86 BC-AD 22) 東夫餘

The rulers of Dongbuyeo submitted to the overlordship of Bukbuyeo in 86 BC and thus used the title of Wang, which means king.

1. King Haeburu (86 BC-48 BC)
2. King Geumwa (48 BC-7 BC)
3. King Daeso (7 BC-AD 22)

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Gaya (Garak) (42-532) 가야 加耶 or 伽倻

Gaya (also called "Garak") was a minor state (that is, not one of the three major kingdoms) during the Three Kingdoms Period. Gaya was absorbed into Silla in 532.

*Note by me: Gaya was more of a confederacy of many states and the following lineage represents only those of Bon (Geumgang) Gaya and Dae Gaya (The Mioyama state).

All kings of Gaya had the Korean title Wang, which means "king." This list represents the Kim Dynasty of Geumgwan (Bon) Gaya.

1. King Suro (42-199)
2. King Geodeung (199-259)
3. King Mapum (259-291)
4. King Geojilmi (291-346)
5. King Isipum (346-407)
6. King Jwaji (407-421)
7. King Chwiheui (421-451)
8. King Jilji (451-492)
9. King Gyumji (492-521)
10. King Guhyung (521-532)

*Lineage of Dae Gaya (Mioyama state) Many kings unknown.

1st King Ijinashi
9th King Anoi
16th King Doseolji
?th King Haji
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Baekje (18 BC-AD 660) 백제 百濟

Baekje was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in the 1st millennium AD (along with Goguryeo and Silla), and fell to Silla in 660.

All kings of Baekje had the Korean title Wang, which means "king."

1. King Onjo (18 BC-AD 29)
2. King Daru (29-77)
3. King Giru (77-128)
4. King Gaeru (128-166)
5. King Chogo (166-214)
6. King Gusu (214-234)
7. King Saban (234)
8. King Goi (234-286)
9. King Chaekgye (286-298)
10. King Bunseo (298-304)
11. King Biryu (304-344)
12. King Gye (344-346)
13. King Geunchogo (346-375)
14. King Geungusu (375-384)
15. King Chimnyu (384-385)
16. King Jinsa (385-392)
17. King Asin (392-405)
18. King Jeonji (405-420)
19. King Guisin (420-427)
20. King Biyu (427-454)
21. King Gaero (454-475)
22. King Munju (475-477)
23. King Samgeun (477-479
24. King Dongseong (479-501)
25. King Muryeong (501-523)
26. King Seong (523-554)
27. King Wideok (554-598)
28. King Hye (598-599)
29. King Beop (599-600)
30. King Mu (600-641)
31. King Uija (641-660)

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Goguryeo (37 BC - AD 668) 고구려 高句麗

Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in the first millennium AD (along with Baekje and Silla), and fell to Silla in 668.

Goguryeo was ruled by the Go clan. Most Goguryeo rulers used the title Wang, or "King," but one exception to this was Gwanggaeto, who used the title Daewang, meaning "great king" or "emperor."

1. King Dongmyeongseong (Damul) (37 BC-19 BC) (also known as Jumong)
2. King Yuri (19 BC-AD 18)
3. King Daemushin (18-44)
4. King Minjung (44-48)
5. King Mobon (48-53)
6. King Taejo (Ryeungmu) (53-121 / 146) (also known as King Gukjo)
7. King Chadae (121 / 146-165)
8. King Shindae (165-179)
9. King Gogukcheon (179-197)
10. King Sinsang (197-227)
11. King Dongcheon (227-248) (also known as King Dongyang)
12. King Jungcheon (248-270) (also known as King Jungyang)
13. King Seocheon (270-292) (also known as King Seoyang)
14. King Bongsang (292-300) (also known as King Chagal)
15. King Micheon (300-331) (also known as King Hoyang)
16. King Gogukwon (331-371) (also known as King Gukgangsang)
17. King Sosurim (371-384)
18. King Gogukyang (384-391)
19. Emperor Gwanggaeto the Great (Youngrak) (391-413)
20. King Jangsu (Gunheung) (413-491)
21. King Munjamyeong (Myungchi) (491-519)
22. King Anjang (519-531)
23. King Anwon (531-545)
24. King Yangwon (545-559) (also known as King Yanggang)
25. King Pyeongwon (Daeduk) (559-590) (also known as King Pyeonggang)
26. King Yeongyang (Hongmu) (590-618) (also known as King Pyeongyang)
27. King Yeongnyu (618-642)
28. King Bojang (Kaehwa) (642-668)

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Silla (Shilla) (57 BC - AD 935) 신라 新羅

Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in the 1st millennium AD, along with Baekje (which it conquered in 660) and Goguryeo (which it defeated in 668). Silla fell in turn to Goryeo in 935. The post-668 kingdom is often referred to by academics as Unified Silla, since it was the first unified state to rule over most of the Korean peninsula.

Silla was ruled by the Bak, Seok, and Kim Dynasties. Rulers of Silla had various titles, includingm *Geoseogan, Isageum, Maripgan, Wang, and Yeowang, as explained in the list below. For the sake of consistency, all rulers in the list below (except for the first two) are given the titles "King" or "Queen."

1. Bak Hyeokgeose (57 BC-AD 4) *Only ruler to hold title Geoseogan, pronounced Guh Suh Gan.
2. Namhae Chachaung (4-24)
3. King Yuri (24-57) (Kings Yuri through Heurhae had the Korean title Isageum, an old word for "ruler")
4. King Tarhae (57-80)
5. King Pasa (80-112)
6. King Jima (112-134)
7. King Ilseong (134-154)
8. King Adalla (154-184)
9. King Beorhyu (184-196)
10. King Nahae (196-230)
11. King Jobun (230-247)
12. King Cheomhae (247-261)
13. King Michu (262-284)
14. King Yurye (284-298)
15. King Girim (298-310)
16. King Heurhae (310-356)
17. King Naemul (356-402) (Kings Naemul through Soji had the Korean title Maripgan, an old word for "ruler")
18. King Silseong (402-417)
19. King Nulji (417-458)
20. King Jabi (458-479)
21. King Soji (479-500)
22. King Jijeung (500-514) (Kings Jijeung through Gyeongsun had the title Wang (the modern Korean word for "king"), with the exceptions noted below)
23. King Beopheung (514-540)
24. King Jinheung (540-576)
25. King Jinji (576-579)
26. King Jinpyeong (579-632)
27. Queen Seondeok (632-647) (Queens Seondeok and Jindeok had the title Yeowang, meaning "queen")
28. Queen Jindeok (647-654)
29. King Muyeol (654-661)
30. King Munmu (661-681)
31. King Sinmun (681-691)
32. King Hyoso (692-702)
33. King Seongdeok the Great (702-737) ("King Seongdeok the Great" is a translation of Seongdeok Daewang; "Daewang" meaning "great king")
34. King Hyoseong (737-742)
35. King Gyeongdeok (742-765)
36. King Hyegong (765-780)
37. King Seondeok (780-785)
38. King Wonseong (785-798)
39. King Soseong (798-800)
40. King Aejang (800-809)
41. King Heondeok (809-826)
42. King Heungdeok (826-836)
43. King Huigang (836-838)
44. King Minae (838-839)
45. King Sinmu (839)
46. King Munseong (839-857)
47. King Heonan (857-861)
48. King Gyeongmun (861-875)
49. King Heongang (875-886)
50. King Jeonggang (886-887)
51. Queen Jinseong (887-897) (Queen Jinseong had the Korean title Yeowang, which means "queen")
52. King Hyogong (897-912)
53. King Sindeok (913-917)
54. King Gyeongmyeong (917-924)
55. King Gyeongae (924-927)
56. King Gyeongsun (927-935)

[edit]

Jin (Barhae) (669-926) 발해 渤海 / 진 震 or 振

Jin (진), (Barhae (발해)) (Bohai in Mandarin) was an empire that occupied territory in Korea, Manchuria, and modern-day Russia during the Unified Silla period. Jin is the name of the country chosen by the rulers, and Barhae (Bohai) is what China named the empire. The rulers of Jin used the title of Hwangje, which is translated to be emperor, and they claimed the inheritance of Goguryeo. They had the temple name of either -jo or -jong, though there are exceptions for deposed rulers. Their era names are in bracket when available.

1. Emperor Sejo Yeol (Joongkwang) (669-698)
2. Emperor Taejo Ko (Chuntong) (698-719)
3. Emperor Kwangjong Mu (Inan) (719-738)
4. Emperor Sejong Mun (Daeheung) (738-794)
5. Emperor Daewonui (794)
6. Emperor Injong Sung(Joongheung (794-795)
7. Emperor Mokjong Kang(Chungryuk) (795-809)
8. Emperor Uijong Jung (Youngduk) (809-812)
9. Emperor Kangjong Hui (Jujak) (812-817)
10. Emperor Cheoljong Kan(Taeshi) (817-818)
11. Emperor Sungjong Sung (Kunheung) (818-832)
12. Emperor Jangjong Hwa (Hamhwa) (832-858)
13. Emperor Sunjong Ahn (Daejong) (858-871)
14. Emperor Myungjong Kyung (Chunbok) (878-894
15. Emperor Daewihae (894-906)
16. Emperor Aeje (Chungtae) (901-926)

[edit]

Goryeo (918-1392) 고려 高麗

The kingdom of Goryeo was founded in 918 and defeated Silla in 935-936, making "Goryeo" the name of Korea. (Incidentally, "Goryeo" is the source of the English name "Korea.") In 1392, the kingdom fell to the Joseon Dynasty.

Goryeo was ruled by the Wang Dynasty. The first king had the temple name Taejo, which means "great progenitor" and was applied to the first kings of both Goryeo and Joseon, as they were also the founders of the Wang and Yi Dynasties respectively. The next 23 kings (until Wonjong) are also referred to by their temple names, which had the title jong in them. Beginning with Chungnyeol (the 25th king), all the remaining kings of Goryeo had the title Wang—the standard Sino-Korean word for "King"—as part of their temple names. Era names are in brackets where available.

1. King Taejo (Chunsu) (918-943)
2. King Hyejong (943-945)
3. King Jeongjong (945-949)
4. King Gwangjong (949-975)
5. King Gyeongjong (975-981)
6. King Seongjong (981-997)
7. King Mokjong (997-1009)
8. King Hyeonjong (1009-1031)
9. King Deokjong (1031-1034)
10. King Jeongjong (1034-1046)
11. King Munjong (1046-1083)
12. King Sunjong (1083)
13. King Seonjong (1083-1094)
14. King Heonjong (1094-1095)
15. King Sukjong (1095-1105)
16. King Hyejong (1105-1122)
17. King Injong (1122-1146)
18. King Euijong (1146-1170)
19. King Myeongjong (1170-1197)
20. King Sinjong (1197-1204)
21. King Heuijong (1204-1211)
22. King Gangjong (1211-1213)
23. King Gojong (1213-1259)
24. King Weonjong (1259-1274)
25. King Chungnyeol (1274-1308) (Chungnyeol was the first king of Goryeo to have the title Wang, which means "King")
26. King Chungseon (1308-1313)
27. King Chungsuk (1313-1330; 1332-1339)
28. King Chunghye (1330-1332; 1339-1344)
29. King Chungmok (1344-1348)
30. King Chungjeong (1348-1351)
31. King Gongmin (1351-1374)
32. King U (1374-1388)
33. King Chang (1388-1389)
34. King Gongyang (1389-1392)

[edit]

Joseon (1392-1897) 조선 朝鮮

Joseon was the name of Korea during most the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled from the fall of Goryeo in 1392 until the beginning of the Republic of Korea in 1919. In 1897, the country became the Korean Empire. Some of the kings were posthumously raised to the rank of emperors.

Joseon Dynasty kings/emperors had temple names ending in jo or jong. Jo was given to the first kings/emperors of new lines within the dynasty, with the first king/emperor having the special name (Taejo), which means "great progenitor" (see also Goryeo). Jong was given to all other kings/emperors. Two kings—Yeonsangun and Gwanghaegun— were so disgraced in the eyes of later official historians that they were deprived of their temple names after their reigns ended. Each king/emperor had a posthumous name—which was different from his temple name—that included either the title Wang ("King"),Hwangje ("Emperor"), Daewang ("King X the Great") or Daeje ("Emperor X the Great"). For the sake of consistency, the title "King/Emperor" has been added to each monarch's temple name in the list below.

1. Emperor Taejo (1392-1398)
2. King Jeongjong (1398-1400)
3. King Taejong (1400-1418)
4. King Sejong the Great (1418-1450)
5. King Munjong (1450-1452)
6. King Danjong (1452-1455)
7. King Sejo (1455-1468)
8. King Yejong (1468-1469)
9. King Seongjong (1469-1494)
10. Yeonsangun (1494-1506)
11. King Jungjong (1506-1544)
12. King Injong (1544-1545)
13. King Myeongjong (1545-1567)
14. King Seonjo (1567-1608)
15. Gwanghaegun (1608-1623)
16. King Injo (1623-1649)
17. King Hyojong (1649-1659)
18. King Hyeonjong (1659-1674)
19. King Sukjong (1674-1720)
20. King Gyeongjong (1720-1724)
21. King Yeongjo (1724-1776)
22. Emperor Jeongjo (1776-1800)
23. Emperor Sunjo (1800-1834)
24. Emperor Heonjong (1834-1849)
25. Emperor Cheoljong (1849-1864)
26. Emperor Gojong (1864-1897)

[edit]

Korean Empire (1897-1919) 대한 제국 大韓帝國

In 1897, Korea was renamed Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire, or literally, "Great Han Empire"). King Gojong of the Joseon Dynasty became the first emperor (Hwangje in Korean). Technically, the emperors should be referred to by their era names rather than their temple names, but the latter are commonly used.

Emperor Gojong's reign was given the era name "Gwangmu," while Sunjong's reign had the era name "Yeonghui."

From 1910 to 1945, there was also a Japanese Governor-General of Korea.

1. Emperor Gojong (Kwangmu) (1897-1907)
2. Emperor Sunjong (Yeonghui) (1907-1919)

[edit]

Presidents of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (1919-1948)

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was based in Shanghai, China. Although the current South Korean government insists on being its successor to assert legitimacy,and indeed some countries recognised the government, including China, the government was not internationally recognized by all great powers..

1. Syngman Rhee 이승만 (1919-1925)
2. Park Eunshik 박은식 (1925)
3. Yi Sangryong 이상룡 (1925-1926)
4. Hong Jin (Hong Myunhui) 홍진 (홍면희) (1926)
5. Yi Dongnyung 이동녕 (1926-1927)
6. Kim Ku 김구 (1927-1948)

[edit]

Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1948-present)
조선민주주의인민공화국 朝鮮民主主義人民共和國


1. 1948-1994 President Kim Il-sung
2. 1994-present Chairman of the National Defense Commission Kim Jong-il

[edit]

Republic of Korea (1948-present) 대한 민국 大韓民國

Main Article: Presidents of South Korea

1. 1948-1960 1st, 2nd, 3rd President Syngman Rhee (The 1st Republic)
2. 1960-1962 4th President Yun Boseon (The 2nd Republic)
3. 1963-1979 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th President Park Chunghee (The 3rd/4th Republic)
4. 1979-1980 10th President Choi Kyuha
5. 1980-1988 11th, 12th President Chun Doo-hwan (The 5th Republic)
6. 1988-1993 13th President Roh Tae-woo (The 6th Republic)
7. 1993-1998 14th President Kim Young-sam (The Civil Government)
8. 1998-2003 15th President Kim Dae-jung (The Government of the People)
9. 2003-present 16th president Roh Moo-hyun (The Participatory Government)

[Wú Fēi]

Excellent work.
Would you like to post them in characters?

[Gubook Janggoon]

Do you mean all the rulers? Cuz i couldn't find all the characters for them....


Ok today's focus is on the origional Josuns: Gojosun, Wiman Josun, and Kija Josun, and the kingdom of Buyeo.

Go-Joseon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from Gojoseon)

Go-Joseon
Revised Romanization Go-Joseon
McCune-Reischauer Ko-Josŏn
Hangul 고조선
Hanja 古朝鮮

A guess at the Borders of Gojoseon (True borders unknown)


Go-Joseon, or Old Korea (2333 - 206 BC), was the first Korean kingdom. According to legend, it was founded by Dangun in southern Manchuria in the basins of the Liao and Taedong Rivers.

Judging from Chinese records, the state of Go-Joseon as a political entity could be described as a kingdom (Chinese: 國; pinyin: guó) at least by the beginning of the 4th century BC. This roughly coincides with the advent of the Iron Age in Korea.

Go-Joseon went into a period of decline, but it was revived in the 2nd century BC as Wiman Joseon. Some Korean records combine Wiman Joseon, Gija Joseon, and the initial Go-Joseon as periods of one Go-Joseon.


[edit]

Gija Joseon (around 300 BC - 194 BC or 1126 BC - 194 BC) was an ancient kingdom that succeeded Go-Joseon.

Gija Joseon
Revised Romanization Gija Joseon
McCune-Reischauer Kija Josŏn
Hangul 기자 조선
Hanja 箕子朝鮮

Gija was the paternal uncle of the last emperor of the Chinese Shang Dynasty, the tyrannical King Zhou. Gija was imprisoned by the tyrant until the downfall of Shang Kingdom, when King Wu of Zhou released him. Not wanting to be the subject of the Zhou Kingdom, Gija led 5,000 to present-day Korea and became the king of Joseon.

Whether Gija Joseon actually existed or not is a matter of great controversy; for some historians deny or ignore Gija because of nationalistic ideology. According to Samguk Yusa, Go-Joseon was established in 2333 BC. But Samguk Yusa doesn't provide much detail; and according to Gyuwon Sahwa, a historical record of Danguns and their periods of reign, Go-Joseon was ruled by 43 Danguns for 1195 years. The "lost period" between fall of Go-Joseon and Wiman Joseon makes it possible that Gija Joseon existed.

House Seonwu of Taewon of Korea has Book of Roots of House Seonwu of Taewon(태원선우씨세보, 太原鮮于氏世譜) which lists names of 41 rulers of Gija Joseon and their periods of reign.

Gija Joseon was succeeded by Wiman Joseon.


Wiman Joseon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Revised Romanization Wiman Joseon
Hangul 위만조선
Hanja 衛滿朝鮮

Wiman Joseon (194 BC - 108 BC) was the continuation of Go-Joseon, founded by Wiman.

Wiman was originally a refugee from the Chinese state of Yan. He succeeded in driving out King Jun of Go-Joseon and taking over the throne. He made the capital in Wanggeomseong (王險城), today's P'yŏngyang. Although cultually Sinicized, Wiman Joseon was not a colony of China.

Wiman Joseon expanded to control a vast territory and became strong economically by controlling trade between China's Han Dynasty and the outlying regions to the northeast. Feeling increasingly threatened by the growing Wiman Joseon, and fearing she would ally with the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu of Han China launched an attack on Wiman Joseon in 109 BC. After a year of battle, Wanggeomseong was captured and Wiman Joseon was destroyed. Han China established four commanderies in the captured areas, of which Lelang or Nangnang was the most important.


Bueyo (Chinese Fuyu)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Buyeo
Chinese characters 夫餘
Pinyin Fūyú
Korean Name Bueyo
Revised Romanization Buyeo
McCune-Reischauer Puyŏ
Hangul 부여
Hanja 夫餘

Fuyu (Buyeo) was an ancient ethnic group and its kingdom in northern Manchuria.

Their manners and customs were mostly recorded in Sanguo Zhi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms). The Fuyu were agricultural people who occupied the vastest plain in Manchuria. They already maintained a complex social structure. They named official titled after animals. Their capital was once considered to be Nong'an, Jilin Province but it would be near Harbin.

The origin of Fuyu is unknown but it seems to have already been known to China during the Warring States Period. Fuyu began to make frequent contacts with China via the Xuantu commandery during the Eastern Han Dynasty. Although it raided Chinese borderland in 111, Fuyu paid tribute to Eastern Han in 120 and in the next year dispatched Prince Weichoutai (尉仇台) to Xuantu to save it from Goguryeo's attack.

At the end of Eastern Han, Gongsun Du, a Chinese warlord in Liaodong, supported Fuyu to counter Xianbei in the north and Goguryeo in the east. After destroying the Gongsun family, the Kingdom of Wei sent Wuqiu Jian to attack Goguryeo. A squad of the third expeditionary force led by the Governor of the Xuantu commandery was welcomed by Fuyu. It brought detailed information of Fuyu to China.

Since then Fuyu had been torn between big powers until its final overthrow. In 285 the Murong tribe of the Xianbei, led by Murong Hui, invaded Fuyu, pushing King Yilü (依慮) to suicide. Considering its friendly relationship with Jin Dynasty, Emperor Wu revived Fuyu and installed King Yiluo (依羅). Goguryeo's attack sometime before 347 caused further decline. Lost its stronghold near Harbin, Fuyu moved southwestward to Nong'an. Around 347, Fuyu was conquered by Murong Huang of the Former Yan. King Xuan (玄) and his people were captured.

At the first downfall in 285, some people fled eastward to the land of Woju (沃沮) around modern-day Yanbian. It seems they who was called Eastern Fuyu by Goguryeo. They were invaded by King Gwanggaeto and may have been conquered by King Jangsu.

A part of Fuyu seems to have lingered around Harbin under the influence of Goguryeo. In fact Fuyu paid tribute to Northern Wei in 457. They were conquered by the rising Wuji (Mohe) in 494 and the royal family defected to Goguryeo.

Goguryeo and Baekje claimed that they were descendants of Fuyu. According to their legends, King Dongmyeong, the founder of Goguryeo, was a prince of Fuyu. Korean medieval history books say that Goguryeo was originally made of many chiefdoms, including Jolbon Buyeo(졸본부여, 卒本扶餘), the tribe of King Dongmyeongseong. Baekje officially changed its name to Nambuyeo (남부여, 南夫餘 "South Buyeo") in 538. It is well known the founder of Baekje, according to Samguk Sagi, King Onjo, the founder of Baekje, was a son of King Dongmyeong. Those titles suggest both Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the three kingdoms of ancient Korea, considered themselves as a branch or successor of Fuyu. So Korean historians consider Fuyu(Buyeo) as one of the ancestors of Koreans.



Next time The Samhan.

[Gubook Janggoon]

Wú Fēi, on Dec 31 2004, 03:43 PM, said:

Excellent work.
Would you like to post them in characters?

<{POST_SNAPBACK}>

This is the most I could find for the names of rulers in "Centerian" ... Taken from "A New History of Korea" By Ki-baik Lee

[Gubook Janggoon]

Today's highlight is the State of Jin (not the Chinese warring states one or the Jurchen one...) and the Samhan.


Jin (Korean history)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Jin
Revised Romanization Jin-guk
McCune-Reischauer Chin-guk
Hangul 진국
Hanja 辰國


Jin was an early Iron Age state which occupied some portion of the southern Korean peninsula during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, at the time when Wiman Joseon occupied the peninsula’s northern half. It appears in various Chinese chronicles including the San guo zhi, as sending occasional embassies to the court of the Han Dynasty. These records also sometimes refer to Jin as Gaeguk or Gaemaguk, which appears to mean "Kingdom of armored horses." Its capital was located somewhere south of the Han River.

To what degree Jin was an organized state is not clear. It seems likely that it was a federation of small states much like those which covered the southern Korean peninsula during the subsequent Samhan period. Clearly, for the state to be able to contend with Wiman Joseon and send embassies to the court of Han, there was probably some level of stable central authority. Lee (1984, p. 24) also suggests that the kingdom's attempt to open direct contacts "suggests a strong desire on the part of Chin [Jin] to enjoy the benefits of Chinese metal culture." However, for the most part Wiman Joseon prevented direct contact between Jin and China.

The last king of Gojoseon, King Jun, is reported to have fled to Jin after Wei Man seized his throne and established Wiman Joseon. Lee (1984, loc. cit.) sees this as part of a general pattern of refugee movement at this time, which also led to increased technological development in the southern Korean peninsula. Refugees moved south after the fall of Gojoseon, and again a century later after the fall of Wiman Joseon.

Archeologically, the Jin state is commonly identified with the Korean bronze dagger culture, which succeeded the Liaoning bronze dagger culture in the late first millennium BCE. The most abundant finds from this culture have been in southwestern Korea’s Chungcheong and Jeolla regions. This suggests that the Jin state was based in the same area, which roughly coincides with the fragmentary historical evidence. Artifacts of the culture are found throughout southern Korea and were also exported to the Yayoi people of Kyushu, Japan (Lee, 1996).

The Jin state disappears from historical records after the fall of Wiman Joseon. It was succeeded by the Samhan or "Three Hans." The Jin name continued to be used in the name of the Jinhan confederacy and in the name "Byeonjin," an alternate term for Byeonhan. In addition, for some time the leader of Mahan continued to call himself the "Jin king," asserting nominal overlordship over all of the Samhan tribes.

General overview of the Samhan

Samhan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Samhan
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Samhan
McCune-Reischauer Samhan
Hangul 삼한
Hanja 三韓

*The character for Han is generally what Koreans nowadays call themselves...although the term Baedal is sometimes used also.l

During the Samhan period, the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan dominated the southern portion of the Korean peninsula. The name Samhan means "Three Han," and refers to these confederacies. The period is also sometimes referred to as the "Proto-Three-Kingdoms period." [1] (http://www.tgmuseum.org/museum/english/body_02/body02_1_05.htm) The Samhan period is usually reckoned to begin around the time of the fall of Wiman Joseon in 108 BCE, which appears to coincide with the decline of the Jin state, and to continue through the third century CE, after which time the Three Kingdoms period begins.

Geography

The exact locations occupied by the different Samhan tribes are disputed. It is also quite likely that some of their locations changed over time. Based on a passage in the Samguk Sagi, some historians have argued that Mahan was located in the northern region later occupied by Goguryeo, Jinhan in the region later occupied by Silla, and Byeonhan in the southwestern region later occupied by Baekje. However, this view is contradicted by the earlier San guo zhi, as well as various other Korean sources, and is not widely held by historians today. Most follow the San guo zhi in placing Mahan in the southwest, Jinhan in the southeast, and Byeonhan between them.

Villages were usually constructed deep in high mountain valleys, where they were relatively secure from attack. Mountain fortresses were also often constructed as places of refuge during war. The minor states which made up the federations are usually considered to have covered about as much land as a modern-day myeon, or township.

Based on historical and archeological records, river and sea routes appear to have been the primary means of long-distance transportation and trade (Yi, 2001, p. 246). It is thus not surprising that Jinhan and Byeonhan, with their coastal and river locations, became particularly prominent in international trade during this time.

[edit]

Three Hans
[edit]

Byeonhan

See main article: Byeonhan

Byeonhan included 12 minor states, which later gave rise to the Gaya confederacy. It is usually considered to have been located in the Nakdong River valley.
[edit]

Jinhan

See main article: Jinhan

Jinhan included 12 minor states, one of which would later become Silla. It is usually considered to have been located along the East Sea coast.


[edit]

Mahan

See main article: Mahan

Mahan was the largest of the three confederacies. It was reckoned to include 54 minor states, one of which was the precursor of Baekje. Mahan is usually considered to have been located in the southwest of the peninsula, covering Jeolla, Chungcheong, and portions of Gyeonggi.

*Note: The state of Baekje is thought to be a fusion of the Han people of the Samhan and a Buyeo people related to those of the state of Buyeo and Goguryeo.

[edit]

Political structure

Lee (1984) regards the Samhan as an example of "confederated kingdoms" composed of "walled-town states," an interpretation which is still widely accepted. Each appears to have had a ruling elite, whose power was a mix of politics and shamanism. Although each state appears to have had its own ruler, there is no evidence of systematic succession.


[edit]

Technology

The Samhan saw the systematic introduction of iron into the southern Korean peninsula. This was taken up with particular intensity by the Byeonhan states of the Nakdong River valley, which manufactured and exported iron armor and weapons throughout Northeast Asia.

The introduction of iron technology also facilitated growth in agriculture, as iron tools made the clearing and cultivation of land much easier. It appears that at this time the modern-day Jeolla area emerged as a center of rice production (Kim, 1974).


[edit]

Relations

The external relations of the Samhan peoples were largely limited to their contact with the Chinese commanderies located in the northern part of the peninsula. The commanderies, among which Lelang commandery predominated, appear to have maintained separate diplomatic relations with each individual state rather than with the heads of the confederacies as such. This policy may have hindered the development of full-fledged states in the region, as Lee (1984) contends. Yi (2001) notes that these "emissary trade" relations were also a way for local leaders to enhance their own power.

For much of the Samhan period, the relations of the Chinese commanderies with the Samhan states mirrored those of China with its tributaries; a politically-driven trading system in which "tribute" was exchanged for titles or prestige gifts such as bronze mirrors. Official sealswere used to identify each tribal leader and confirm his authorization to trade with the commandery. However, this system appears to have changed after the fall of the Kingdom of Wei in the third century. The San guo zhi reports that the Lelang commandery handed out official seals and garments freely to local commoners. Yi (2001, p. 245) states that "By the third century, the Chinese garments and official seals no longer symbolized political authority ... instead, they began to be used as a certification of qualification to trade with the Chinese commanderies."

The Chinese commanderies also played an important economic role as a supplier of luxury goods and market for local products. Through informal trade, Chinese coins began to circulate; Han dynasty coins have been excavated throughout the Korean peninsula. A popular Chinese luxury item in the informal trade was beads, which the San guo zhi reports were more popular than gold or silver with Samhan consumers. This was exchanged for local products such as iron or raw silk. Trade relations also existed with the emergent states of Japan at this time, most commonly involving the exchange of ornamental Japanese bronzeware for Korean iron. These trade relations shifted in the third century, when the Yamatai federation of Kyushu gained monopolistic control over Japanese trade with Byeonhan.

After the second century CE, as direct Chinese influence waned, iron ingots came into use as currency for the trade based around Jinhan and Byeonhan.


Here are each of the Samhans in detail

Mahan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Mahan
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Mahan
McCune-Reischauer Mahan
Hangul 마한
Hanja 馬韓


For other uses, see Mahan (disambiguation).

Mahan was a tribal confederation in Iron Age Korea around the beginning of the Common Era. Along with Jinhan and Byeonhan, Mahan is considered one of the Samhan, or "Three Han." At its height, the Mahan confederation covered much of the modern-day provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla. Our primary source of information about the Mahan is the Chinese chronicle San Guo Zhi, which includes a list of the 54 tribes in Mahan. The Mahan tribes are also mentioned in the much later Korean chronicles Samguk Yusa and Samguk Sagi.

In the first and second centuries AD, the Baekje kingdom gained increasing power among the Mahan tribes, eventually absorbing or conquering all of them. Thus the Three Han gave way to the Three Kingdoms period.


Jinhan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Jinhan
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Jinhan
McCune-Reischauer Chinhan
Hangul 진한
Hanja 辰韓

Jinhan was one of the three tribal confederations which dominated southern Korea during the Samhan period, around the beginning of the Common Era. According to the contemporary Chinese chronicle San Guo Zhi, Jinhan consisted of 12 small countries. Many modern-day scholars regard Jinhan as an alliance of "walled-town states."

Jinhan, like the other Samhan confederacies, arose out of the confusion following the fall of Wiman Joseon and establishment of the Chinese commanderies in the northern part of the Korean peninsula. Its relation to the earlier state of Jin is not clear, although the San Guo Zhi alleges that Jinhan was identical with Jin.

According to Korean legend, one of the Jinhan states, the kingdom of Saro (present-day Gyeongju) was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BC, who united the leading clans of the district under his rule. Saro grew to dominate the other Jinhan tribes, and gave rise to the kingdom of Silla.

We know little of the daily life of Jinhan people. The religion appears to have been shamanistic, and to have played an important role in politics as well. Agriculture was heavily dominated by rice, but also included substantial rearing of livestock including horses, cattle, and chickens.

[edit]

Location

Most theories indicate that Jinhan was located in the area later occupied by the Silla kingdom: the Gyeongju Basin and adjacent East Sea coast. It would have been neighbored by the Byeonhan confederacy on the south, and by the much larger Mahan confederacy on the west. On the north it would have been bounded by the Chinese commanderies and the small coastal state of Dongye. However, some scholars place Jinhan in the Han River valley, bounded by Mahan on the north and Byeonhan on the south.

Byeonhan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Byeonhan
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Byeonhan
McCune-Reischauer Pyŏnhan
Hangul 변한
Hanja 弁韓

Byeonhan also known as Byeonjin (변진/弁辰) was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from the 1st century BC to the 4th century in southern Korean peninsula. Byeonhan was counted as one of Samhan ("Three Hans"), with Mahan and Jinhan. They are believed to have been centered in the Nakdong River valley. The Sanguozhi also states the culture of Byeonhan was closer to that of Jinhan than of Mahan.

According to Sanguo Zhi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms), Byeonhan was made of 12 states including Mirimidong (미리미동국/彌離彌凍國), Jeopdo (접도국/接塗國), Gojamidong (고자미동국/古資彌凍國), Gosunsi (고순시국/古淳是國), Banro (반로국/半路國), Akno (악노국/樂奴國), Gunmi (군미국/軍彌國), Mioyama (미오야마국/彌烏邪馬國), Ganro (감로국/甘路國), Guya (구야국/狗邪國), Jujoma (주조마국/走漕馬國), Anya (안야국/安邪國), and Dokro (독로국/瀆盧國).
The History of Korea

Among these, Gojamidong was located in modern-day Goseong County, Mioyama in Goryeong County, Guya in Gimhae, and Anya in Haman County. Locations of the rest of the states are still unclear.

According to the 3rd century Chinese chronicle Wei Zhi, Byeonhan was known for the production of iron; they exported iron to Yamato Japan and the rest of the Korean peninsula. They were also a center of stoneware manufacture. Archeological evidence indicates an increase in military activity and weapons production among the Byeonhan in the 3rd century, especially an increase in iron arrowheads and cuirasses (Barnes 2000). This may be associated with the decline of Byeonhan and the rise of the more centralized Gaya Confederacy, which most Byeonhan states joined.


Next time Other states during the time of the Samhan...and then sometime after that the 3 kingdoms and Gaya

[Gubook Janggoon]

This Time's focus is on Two Korean states thought to be Fuyu peoples who were ultimately abosorbed into Goguryeo


Okjeo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Okjeo
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Okjeo
McCune-Reischauer Okchŏ
Hangul 옥저
Hanja 高麗


Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose on the East Sea coast very early in the Common Era. It occupied roughly the area of the Hamhung provinces of North Korea, and bordered the other minor state of Dongye on the south. It was established on territory which had been briefly governed by the Chinese Lintun commandery, and previously occupied by the Imdun people. Both Okjeo and Dongye were later absorbed by Goguryeo.

Our knowledge of Okjeo is fragmentary and based on thirdhand records at best. Among the things we do know are that the Okjeo people interred the dead of a family in a single coffin, that they practiced arranged marriage by which the child-bride lived with the child-groom's family until adulthood, and that their political system did not include a monarch. Their language was similar to that of Goguryeo and Fuyu.

In the 1st or 2nd century CE, King Taejo of Goguryeo reduced Okjeo to a tributary, which delivered tributes of local products to the Goryeo court in much the same way that the Three Kingdoms of Korea later sent tribute to China (Lee, 1984, p. 24).

During the waning years of the kingdom of Fuyu (or Buyeo) in 285, we read that "the king's sons and brothers had fled to Okchŏ in eastern Korea" (Lee, 1984, p. 22). Okjeo thus clearly retained some level of independence at this time.

Dongye
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Dongye
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Dongye
McCune-Reischauer Tongye
Hangul 동예
Hanja 東濊


Dongye was a state which occupied portions of the northeastern Korean peninsula in the earliest centuries of the Common Era. Its people shared the language and ethnic origins of the people of Goguryeo and Okjeo. This may indicate that Dongye also shared a common origin with Manchurian kingdom of Fuyu, or Buyeo. Dongye occupied portions of the present-day provinces of South Hamgyŏng and Kangwon in North Korea, and Gangwon in South Korea. Dongye first appears in history as a vassal state of Wiman Joseon.

Very little information about Dongye has survived. However, the custom of Mucheon (무천, 舞天), a festival of worshipping heaven through song and dance in the 10th month, is mentioned in some records. This appears to have been closely related to the Goguryeo festival of Dongmaeng, held at the same time of year, which also incorporated martial displays.

The economy of Dongye was based primarily on agriculture, including sericulture. The Mucheon festival was largely aimed at securing a good harvest in the coming year. Their agriculture appears to have been well-organized at the village level. Dongye law meted out stiff penalties for those who encroached on communal land.

In the reign of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo, Dongye was finally absorbed by that kingdom, which came to dominate the entire northern portion of the Korean peninsula.


Next time the 3 Kingdoms and after that the Extensive confederation of Gaya

[General_Zhaoyun]

Excellent Post..! I'm learning much about korean history..

[Gubook Janggoon]

General_Zhaoyun, on Jan 1 2005, 05:05 PM, said:

Excellent Post..! I'm learning much about korean history..

<{POST_SNAPBACK}>

Much Thanks! I've been meaning to do something like this for a long time...I started one in AE...but there wasn't much of a reaction to it there...maybe when I finish it up here I'll just transfer it over to AE...those ungrateful... ...

jp

[Gubook Janggoon]

Time for the 3 Kingdoms Period. This includes Koguryo, Baekje, Shilla, and Gaya...In this portion I will get into the first three as Gaya is quite extensive. Later I will also provide information on Tamna and Usanguk two island nations.




Here is a Brief Summary


Three Kingdoms of Korea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea,
at the end of the 5th century
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Samguk
McCune-Reischauer Samguk
Hangul 삼국
Hanja 三國



Koguryo in North, Shilla South East, Baekje South West, and Gaya South in the middle.

*Before we start an interesting thing to note is that early on Korean kings seemed to have been somewhat democratically elected by the heads of different clans. This election system was known as the Hwabaek. This can be seen in the changing around of the kingship between in the Bak, Seok, and Kim clans in Shilla. Goguryeo also seems to have had a similar system. Eventually most kings came to consolidate their power. This cannot be said for the Confederation of Gaya though, which never really evolved into a Kingdom


The Three Kingdoms of Korea were Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium CE. The Three Kingdoms period in Korea is usually considered to run from the 4th century CE until Silla's triumph over Goguryeo in 668. The name "Samguk", or "Three Kingdoms", was used in the Korean titles of the classic texts Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, both written in the 12th century.

Historical Records

According to Korean records, the earliest roots of the Three Kingdoms can be traced to 57 BC, when the kingdom of Saro (later Silla) in the southeast of the peninsula obtained autonomy from China under the Han dynasty. Goguryeo, meanwhile, emerged on the north and south banks of Yalu River (Amnok River in Korean). The first reference to the name "Goguryeo" in Chinese records was in 75 BC, as a local district. It became independent from the Chinese in 37 BC according to the Korean sources.

Korean sources recorded 18 BC as the establishment of Baekje; two Goguryeo princes fled out of conflict to be the successor, and established Baekje in the southwest of the peninsula. The capital was first located near today's Seoul, later further south at Ungjin (nowadays Gongju) and later still further south at Sabi (nowadays Buyeo). Chinese records suggest that Baekje was established in the 4th century by a Goguryeo general.

Because of the origins of the three kingdoms are conventionally traced to the 1st century BC, the Three Kingdoms period is sometimes considered to cover the entire period from the 1st century BC to the 7th century AD. However, both historical and archeological evidence shows a profound shift in the nature of life in the peninsula around the 4th century. For that reason, most scholars such as Best (2000) and Lee (1984) treat the Three Kingdoms period as properly beginning around 300 AD. Prior to that time, there is little evidence of systematic political organization above the level of the walled-town state in the south of the peninsula. The historiographic evidence indicates that entities such as Mahan and Jinhan were more dominant than the still-embryonic Silla and Baekje kingdoms, which only appear as minor states in the 3rd-century San guo zhi. In the fourth century, the three kingdoms begin to appear with regularity in contemporaneous Chinese records.

During the Han dynasty, commanderies were established to govern much of the northern part of the Korean peninsula. After the end of the Han dynasty, at the beginning of the 3rd century, these commanderies continued as quasi-independent states for a time. The last to fall, Lelang commandery, was absorbed by Goguryeo in 313. Thus the early Three Kingdoms period was marked by the removal of direct Chinese influence and a realignment of power relations in the peninsula.

All three kingdoms shared similar cultures. Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic, and to have absorbed increasing Chinese influence (particularly Confucianism and Taoism) over time. In the 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula and spread rapidly, becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms in a fairly short time. Na (2003) argues that Buddhism played an important role in providing answers to people in a time when traditional communal patterns of life were breaking down.
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Three Kingdoms

Goguryeo

Goguryeo, the largest of three, had two capitals in alternation. Nangnang (nowadays Pyongyang) and Kungae upon the Yalu river. At the beginning the state was located on the border with China, it conquered little by little vast territories of Manchuria. and finally destroyed the Chinese colony Nangnang in 313. The cultural influence of the Chinese remained until Buddhism was adopted as the official religion in 372.

King of Koguryo

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Baekje

In the 4th century Baekje was very prosperous and dominated the southern part of the peninsula.

King of Baekje


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Silla

Renamed from Saro to Silla in 503, the kingdom of Silla absorbed the whole kingdom of Gaya on their border in the first half of the 6th Century. The capital of Silla was Seorabeol (nowadays Gyeongju). Buddhism became the official religion in 528.

King of Silla


Other Small Kingdoms

Other smaller kingdoms and tribal states existed in Korea before and during this period, including Gaya, Dongye, Okjeo, Buyeo, Usan, and Tamna.
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Unification

Allied with China under the Tang dynasty, Silla conquered Goguryeo in 668, after having already conquered Baekje in 660, thus ushering in the Unified Silla period and effectively putting an end to the Three Kingdoms Period.


Goguryeo

Goguryeo (also known as Koguryo; : Gāogōulí) (1st century BC-668) was a kingdom in southern Manchuria and northern Korea. It is referred to as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla.

The modern name "Korea" derives from the medieval Korean kingdom of Goryeo, which in turn took its name from a contracted form of "Goguryeo."

Language

The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was significantly different from the language of Silla or Tungusic languages. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla. Chinese record suggest that the languages of Goguryeo and Fuyu (Buyeo), East Okjeo, and Old Joseon (Go-Joseon) were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe). Similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese have been noted as well. [1] (http://www.msu.edu/~jk13/Abs.Beckwith.pdf) Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long. Some linguists propose the so-called "Fuyu languages" that included the languages of Fuyu, Goguryeo, and the upper class of Baekje, and Old Japanese. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classifies the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found.
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Modern politics

Koreans have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Chinese have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a foreign state that was part of the China-centred tribute system. Then, in accordance with a more inclusive view of the modern People's Republic of China as a multi-ethnic nation state, the concept of Chinese history was expanded to encompass all states that developed principally in the current territory of China. The accepted position among Chinese government historians therefore became that the history of Goguryeo before the capital was transferred to Pyongyang in the Korean Peninsula was to be considered part of Chinese history.

Some have interpreted Chinese position in the 1990s as implying that Goguryeo was to be treated as a regional power of China as well as interpreting efforts by Chinese scholars to describe the history of Goguryeo as part of Chinese history to de-emphasise or deny Korea's claim to the kingdom's legacy. The Chinese government launched a 20-billion-yuan (2.4 billion US dollars) project dealing with China's Northeast in 2002 whose aims have been interpreted by some as treating Goguryeo as a local government within China, rewriting history textbooks and restoring important Goguryeo sites in China. This was followed by protests from scholars from Korea, Japan, and Russia. As of 2004 this was threatening to lead to diplomatic disputes between China and South Korea and was contributing to some anti-Chinese sentiment in the latter. As such, the subject of Goguryeo history now overlaps somewhat with political disputes, although all of the governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations. The existence of a sizeable ethnic Korean minority in the former Goguryeo territories in China, the issue of political influence over North Korea in the case of a collapse of the regime, and some nervousness over the rapidly increasing power of China add to the fuel of the dispute.

Goguryeo Armor and Wall Mural

Goguryeo Foot Soldier


Baekje

*Note I'm not sure about the stuff about Baekje Controlling Shandong. It hink it's still being debatated among scholars.

Baekje
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Baekje
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Baekje
McCune-Reischauer Paekche
Hangul 백제
Hanja 百濟


Baekje was a kingdom in southwestern Korea. In Korea, it is known as one of the Three Kingdoms, along with Goguryeo and Silla. It was destroyed by an alliance of Silla and the Tang Empire in 660 AD.
Hanseong period (BC 18 ~ AD 475)

There are two different accounts of the founding of Baekje. According to the Samguk Sagi, Baekje was founded in 18 BC by King Onjo, who led a group of people from Buyeo in Manchuria to the Han River region of Korea.

Baekje as a kingdom first appeared in 345 in Chinese records. Much earlier, according to the San Guo Zhi, one of the Mahan chiefdoms in the Han River basin in the early Common Era was called Baekje (伯濟). The early history of Baekje is, thus, attested only through Korean chronicles compiled much later, in the Goryeo dynasty.

However, according to Samguk Yusa, King Onjo was the son of Jumong (King Dongmyeongseong), the founder of Goguryeo. Jumong escaped from Buyeo, where he was persecuted, to the Jolbon area, where he married the daughter of a local leader and founded the kingdom of Goguryeo. After finding out his true origins, Yuri, Jumong's son from his original marriage in Buyeo, arrived at the palace of Goguryeo and became the crown prince. The sons of Jumong from his new marriage (Onjo and Biryu) became aware that they would not be welcome in Goguryeo when Yuri succeeded Jumong. So, the two brothers decided to leave Goguryeo and head south with their followers. On the advice of their followers, Onjo built a town in Wiryeseong (current-day Seoul, South Korea) and called his country Sipje (meaning 10 vassals), but Biryu chose to live by the sea, building a town in Michuhol (current-day Incheon, South Korea). However, the salty water and marshes in Michuhol made life unbearable for many, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously. In shame of ignoring the advice, Biryu killed himself. The people of Michuhol then moved to Wiryeseong and King Onjo happily accepted them and renamed the country Baekje (meaning 100 vassals).

Throughout this early period of Baekje, the capital was frequently moved from one point to another for strategic reasons. King Onjo moved the capital from south of the river, to north of the river, and then south again under the pressure of attacks from other Mahan states. The northern and southern locations came to be known as Habuk (north-of-the-river) Wiryeseong and Hanam (south-of-the-river) Wiryeseong. King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital to the Bukhan Mountain Fortress in 132.

During the reign of King Goi (234-286), the state systems of the kingdom were consolidated. King Geunchogo (346-375) expanded its territory to the north through war against Goguryeo, whilst annexing the Mahan societies in the south. During this period Chinese culture and technology were actively adopted. At this time Baekje reached its greatest geographic extent. During King Geunchogo's reign, the territories of Baekje included most of current-day western Korea (except the two Pyeongan provinces) . Baekje also became a sea power, and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the rulers of Japanese Yamato period . For more information, see Relations with Japan.
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Ungjin period ( 475 ~ 538 )

In the 5th century, Baekje retreated under the southward military threat of Goguryeo, and in 475, the capital, Hanseong (present day Seoul), was overrun by the invading troops of Goguryeo. After this invasion, the capital of Baekje was moved to Ungjin (present-day Gongju), and Najedongmaeng, a military solidarity treaty, was made with Silla against Goguryeo.
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Sabi period ( 538 ~ 660 )

In 538, King Seong moved his capital to Sabi (in modern-day Buyeo County), and rebuilt his kingdom as a strong state. From this time, the official name of the country was Nambuyeo (meaning South Buyeo), a reference to the country of Buyeo from which Baekje is supposed to have originated. The Sabi Period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the development of Buddhism, which Baekje transmitted to Japan.

In the 7th century, with the growing influence of Silla in the southern and central Korean peninsula, Baekje began to lose influence, regardless of military aid from Japan. Finally, in 660, the coalition troops of Silla and Tang of China launched an attack on Baekje. The capital Sabi eventually fell to Silla and Tang, resulting in the annexation of Baekje by Silla. King Uija and his son were sent into exile in China. Some of the royals probably fled to Japan, where Baekje nobility had long since established cordial ties with the local elite.
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Politics

The establishment of a centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of King Geunchogo. He may also have been the first to establish patrilineal succession. Baekje was a monarchy, but like most monarchies a great deal of power was held by the aristocracy. The kings frequently struggled with the nobles for power. For example, King Seong strengthened royal power, but after he was slain in a disastrous campaign against Silla the nobles took much of that power away from his son.

Hae clan and Jin clan were the representative royal houses who had considerable power from the early period of Baekje and they produced many queens over several generations. We can guess that Hae clan was the old royal house before Buyeo clan occupied the royal house, and Hae clan also may have been from the lineage of Buyeo and Goguryeo. The eight clans, Sa, Yeon, Hyeop, Hae, Jin, Guk, Mok, Baek, were powerful nobles in the Sabi era and these clans were recorded in Chinese records like Tongjeon.

It is widely known that Baekje divided its government officials into 16 official ranks, and it seems that the government officials in the rank of Sol from the first, Jwapyeong to the sixth, Naesol may have been the commanders in the fields of politics, administration, military. And the government officials in the rank of Deok from the seventh, Jangdeok to the eleventh, Daedeok may have been the government officials in charge of each field. Mundok, Mudok, Jwagun, Jinmu, Geuku from the twelfth to the sixteenth, may have been the Nang-rangking officials working in the field of military administration. Because the division between the ranks was very clear, the government officials in the rank of sol were dressed in purple and the government officials in the rank of Deok were dressed in red, and the officials in the rank of Mundok and below were dressed in blue.

According to the Samguk Yusa, during the Sabi period the chief minister (or jaesang, 재상) of Baekje was chosen by a unique system. The names of several candidates were placed under a rock(Cheonjeongdae, 天政臺) near the Hoamsa temple located close to Sabi. After a few days, the rock was moved and the candidate whose name had a certain mark was chosen as the new chief minister. Whether this was a form of selection-by-lot or a covert selection by the elite is not clear.
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Geography
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Extent of rule

Most maps of the Three Kingdoms period show Baekje occupying the Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces, and indeed during the Ungjin period and Sabi period this was the core of the country, over which Baekje maintained control until the end. However, during the Hanseong period Baekje control over much of this area was weak or nonexistent. The original heartland of Baekje lay in the Han River valley near present-day Seoul. In the beginning, Baekje was just one among many Mahan states in the valley, but it appears to have become a significant force by the time of King Goi in the mid-3rd century. Through the early centuries of the Common Era, Baekje gradually gained control over the other Mahan tribes, extending it's way until it came into contact with Gaya, which occupied the Nakdong River valley to the west of Mahan territory. The Japanese chronicle Nihonshoki reports that this contact took place in 249.

The boundaries of Baekje control shifted substantially through the centuries. According to Chinese chronicles, Baekje rule during the time of King Geunchogo extended to the Shandong peninsula in present-day China, but it's not clear. At this time Baekje controlled almost the entire coastline of the West Sea (or Yellow Sea). However, the area under Baekje control soon contracted under pressure from Goguryeo and Silla.
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Location of the capital

The Baekje capital was moved numerous times during its history. According to most modern scholars, the two locations of Baekje's original capital Wiryeseong were probably within modern-day Seoul. However, the later capital of Hanseong was probably located within present-day Gwangju, to the southeast of Seoul. This capital was kept until it and the Han River valley were seized by Goguryeo in 475. Subsequently the capital was moved to Ungjin in present-day Gongju city, marking the Ungjin period. Under the reign of King Seong, the capital was moved to Sabi, inaugurating the Sabi period which continued until the fall of Baekje.

Each of these transitions marks a shift in Baekje's international position. The Hanseong location provided a basis for control over the fertile Han River valley at a time when Baekje was just emerging as a power among the Mahan states. The Han River was essentially the heartland of the country. This location also facilitated trade with Goguryeo, which archeological evidence indicates was substantial. Its relatively southerly location at Gwangju provided some buffering against the growing Goguryeo menace. The loss of Hanseong in the 5th century was also the permanent loss of the Han River valley.

After this loss, the capital's new location at Ungjin marked a highly defensive posture as Baekje fought to survive. Isolated in fairly mountainous terrain, the new capital was secure against the north but also disconnected from the outside world. It was closer to Silla than Hanseong had been, however, and in this period an alliance was forged between Silla and Baekje.

The capital's 6th-century move to Sabi coincided with King Seong's renaming of the country as "Nambuyeo," or "Southern Buyeo." King Seong sought to redefine the country and place it in a stronger relationship with China. The location of Sabi on the navigable Geum River made trade and diplomatic exchange with China much easier, and indeed both trade and diplomacy flourished during the 6th and 7th centuries. It also marked less friendly relations with Silla.
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Art and culture

Baekje artists adopted many Chinese influences and synthesized them into a unique and brilliant artistic tradition. Buddhist themes are extremely strong in Baekje artwork. The beatific "Baekje smile" found on many Baekje sculptures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas expresses the warm feeling found in most Baekje carvings. In addition, Taoist and other Chinese influences are widespread. Chinese artisans were sent to the kingdom by the Liang Dynasty in 541, and this may have given rise to an increased Chinese influence in the Sabi period.

The tomb of King Muryeong (501-523), although modelled on Chinese brick tombs and yielding some imported Chinese objects, also contained many funerary objects of the Baekje tradition, such as the gold diadem ornaments, and gold earrings. Mortuary practices also followed the unique tradition of Baekje. This tomb may be seen as a representative tomb of the Ungjin period.

A splendid gilt-bronze incense burner (백제금동대향로) excavated from an ancient Buddhist temple site at Neungsan-ri, Buyeo County, and considered to be the essence of the Baejke culture, vividly demonstrates the peak of Baekje achievements.



The creativity and excellence of the Baekje culture can be appreciated through the delicate and elegant lotus designs of the roof-tiles of this culture, the splendid and beautiful brick patterns, the beauty of the flowing curves of the pottery style, and the flowing and elegant epitaph writing.

The mildly smiling Buddha faces in the Buddhist sculptures, and the magnificent, but refined, pagodas of Baekje show this creativity linked with the religion.

Little is known of Baekje music. However, it would appear from various mentions of local musicians being sent with tribute missions to China in the 7th century that a distinctive Baekje musical tradition had developed by that time.


Foreign relations
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Relations with China

Baekje communicated directly with the Chinese dynasty in the 4th century. In the 27th year of King Geunchogo (372 A.D.), Baekje paid tribute to Dongjin located in the basin of Yangja river.

Buddhism was introduced officially into Baekje in the first year of King Chimryu. Baekje's diplomatic policy for China was changed after Dongjin was destroyed in 418 A.D. and Song Dynasty (a state and dynasty in ancient china) was founded in 420 A.D. Baekje sent envoys frequently to Song and received official rank and asked for all kinds of books and the technological instruction.

Baekje sent an envoy to Northern Wei of Northern Dynasties for the first time in the 18th year of King Gaero (472 A.D.), and King Gaero asked for military to attack Goguryeo.

King Muryeong and King Seong sent envoys to Liang several times and received titles of nobility. At that time, the purpose of diplomacy toward China was to secure the high ground in the world system centering on China and to receive advanced civilization. These facts were proved by the result of excavation research of King Muryeong's tomb.
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Relations with Japan

For most of its existence, Baekje enjoyed close and cordial relations with the Yamato period Japanese kingdom of 倭, pronounced Wa in Japanese and Wae (왜) in Korean. From the 3rd century onward, Wa provided frequent military support to Baekje while Baekje provided Wa with Chinese culture.

Large numbers of Japanese scholars came to Baekje for education and culture, while a large influx of Baekje scholars and immigrants went to Japan and contributed a great deal to the development of the Japanese culture. In addition, Japan provided substantial military support to Baekje. Many members of the Baekje nobility and royalty married into the Japanese imperial line, and many fled to Japan when the kingdom was overthrown.

After Baekje's fall, in 663 Japan sent the general Abe no Hirafu with twenty thousand troops and one thousand ships to revive Baekje with Buyeo Pung, who was a son of King Uija and had been a hostage in Japan. However, this attempt failed; the prince was slain and only half of the troops made it back to Japan.
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Legacy

In the Later Three Kingdoms Period after the decline of Silla, the Baekje state was briefly revived. In 892, the general Gyeon Hwon established the short-lived kingdom of Later Baekje based in Wansan (present-day Jeonju). Hubaekje was overthrown in 936 by King Taejo of Goryeo.

Baekje's role in influencing Yamato period Japanese culture has been a symbolic issue in contemporary relations between South Korea and Japan. The exact nature of the relation between Baekje and Japan has been a flashpoint of controversy. However, the close bonds between the two nations are not in dispute. The current emperor, Akihito, has acknowledged that he is descended from Emperor Kammu, whose mother was a direct descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje. These ties are related in the Japanese chronicle Nihonshoki.

In contemporary South Korea, Baekje relics are often symbolic of the local cultures of the southwest, especially in Chungnam and Jeolla. For example, the gilt-bronze incense burner is a key symbol of Buyeo County, and the Baekje-era Buddhist rock sculpture of Seosan Maaesamjonbulsang is an important symbol of Seosan City.


Silla (Shilla)

Silla
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Silla
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Silla
McCune-Reischauer Shilla
Hangul 신라
Hanja 新羅

Silla was one of the three kingdoms of ancient Korea. Silla conquered the other two kingdoms in the 7th century C.E., Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668. Historians sometimes refer to Silla in the period after it conquered the other two kingdoms as Unified Silla.

It is believed that Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BC. By the 2nd century, it existed as a distinct confederation in the south east of Korea. King Naemul (356-402) established a hereditary monarchy. By annexing the eastern half of the kingdom of Gaya state in the 6th century, Silla emerged as a fully grown kingdom.

King Jinheung (540-576) established a strong military force. In the 7th century Silla allied itself with the Chinese Tang dynasty. In 660, under King Muyeol (654-661), Silla subjugated the kingdom of Baekje. In 668, under King Munmu (King Muyeol's successor) and the famous General Kim Yu-shin, Silla conquered Goguryeo in the north. After this Silla fought for almost a decade to expel the Chinese forces and established a unified kingdom in Korea.

The capital of the Silla kingdom was Gyeongju (慶州). A great number of Silla tombs can still be found in the centre of Gyeongju. Silla tombs took the form of a stone chamber tomb which was surrounded by a soil mound. A great number of remains from the Silla period can be found all over Gyeongju. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of Gyeongju National Park.

The Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great attracts a large number of national tourists. The bell produces a distinctive sound, about which there is a legend. The Cheomseongdae astronomical observatory near Gyeongju is remarkable for its time. It is built out of 362 stone bricks which represent the 362 days of the lunar year.

The importance of Buddhism is reflected by many buddhist carvings left behind by Buddhist monks, mostly on Mt. Namsan. These statues and reliefs are carved in stone, which meant that many have been preserved over the centuries.
[edit]

Culture

Buddhism was supported by the state and flourished in Silla. A great number of temples was built, the most notable probably being Hwangyongsa, Pulguksa and Sokkuram. Silla attached great importance to the pagoda. Sillas wooden pagodas were later replaced by stone constructions.

From at least the 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the bone rank system. This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size and the permitted range of marriage.


Shilla Crown

Hwarang


Hwarang
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Hwarang
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Hwarang
McCune-Reischauer
Hangul 화랑
Hanja 花郞

Hwarang (Flowering Knights) were groups of young men in Silla, an ancient Korean kingdom. They were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study.

Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa record stories about the origin of Hwarang. According to them the first two groups, called Wonhwa, were female. They made trouble and were abolished. Then another group of Hwarang had a code of ethics:

1. Loyalty to the Emperor/King

2. Filial piety to parents/family

3. Respect among friends

4. No retreat in war

5. No unjust killing

Samguk Yusa also says that they learned the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues, the Six Arts, the Three Scholarly Occupations, and the Six Ways of Government Service (五常六藝 三師六正). What is sure is that Hwarang were greatly influenced by Chinese cultures such as Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Tangsu military arts. According to the Hwarang Segi, cited by Samguk Sagi, wise ministers and loyal subjects were chosen from them, and good generals and brave soldiers sprang from them.

Today Hwarang are generally believed to have been elite youth corps. Who practiced Chinese Tangsu military training in addition to archery and scholarly works. Among about 30 recorded Hwarang members, few were definitely warriors. The Five Precepts for the Secular World (Sesok Ogye; 세속 오계; 世俗五戒)--the fourth of which is "Face battle without retreat"--were promoted by the 7th-century Korean Buddhist monk Wongwang and are usually said to be one of the disciplines of Hwarang. The Silla Dynasty were influenced by the Tang Dynasty of China after they formed an alliance in the 7th-century especially in the military arts. The Silla Dynasty lasts until the 10th-century. Whether the warriors of Silla should be called the Hwarang or something else is difficult to assess. What is not in question is their was a warrior class in Korea with a strict ethics code.

After the fall of Silla, Hwarang survived changing their characteristics. During the Joseon Dynasty Hwarang meant male shaman.

In late 1980s, a manuscript of Hwarang Segi (Annals of Hwarang, 花郞世記) has been found in Kimhae County of South Korea.

To Come: The Island states Tamna and Usanguk, Confederation of Gaya, Unified Shilla and Barhae, Later Three Kingdoms/ Goryeo unification, Joseon, Japanese Rule, and the Current two nations.

[Gubook Janggoon]

Now it's time for the Confderation of Gaya. Note: I couldn't find jack on Sogaya and Seongsan Gaya...so there is nothing here, they do exist though as I saw a few of their tombs.

*Note: Gaya never really evolved into a true kingdom as a result of pressure from the larger powers of Baekje and Shilla. It existed mainly as a confederacy of states until it's demise in 562 c.e. Different states dominated the confederacy at different times, with Geumgwan Gaya dominating at first and then Dae Gaya later taking power.

Intro to the Confederation of Gaya (Garak)


Gaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Gaya
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Gaya
McCune-Reischauer Kaya
Hangul 가야
Hanja 加耶 or 伽倻


Gayan Armor

Gayan Rider


Gaya (가야; 加耶, 伽耶, 伽倻), also known as Garak (가락; 駕洛, 迦落), Gara (가라; 加羅, 伽羅, 迦羅, 柯羅), Garyang(가량,加良), or Guya (구야, 狗耶) was a confederacy of chiefdoms that existed in the Three Kingdoms era in ancient Korea.

Gaya is thought to have arisen from a more ancient confederacy of chiefdoms called Byeonhan. The nature of the transition is not clear from historical sources. However, on the basis of archeological sources as well as limited historical indications, scholars such as Cheol (2000) have identified the late third century AD as a period of transition from Byeonhan to Gaya. At this time records show increasing military activity and changed funerary customs. This would also coincide in part with the decline of the Chinese commanderies on the peninsula. Cheol (2000) further argues that this was associated with the replacement of the previous elite in some principalities (including Daegaya) by elements from the Manchurian kingdom of Buyeo, who brought a more militaristic style of rule.

According to a legend recorded in the Samguk Yusa, in the year 42, 6 eggs descended from the heaven with message that they would be kings. 6 eggs hatched and 6 boys were born, and within 12 days they grew mature. One of them, named Suro (수로; 首露), became the king of Geumgwan Gaya (금관 가야), and the other five founded the other five Gayas, namely Daegaya (대가야), Seongsan Gaya (성산 가야), Ara Gaya (아라 가야), Goryeong Gaya (고령 가야), and Sogaya (소가야).

Different records list different chiefdoms of Gaya. Goryeo Saryak (고려사략; 高麗史略) lists five; Geumgwan Gaya, Goryeong Gaya, Bihwa Gaya, Ara Gaya and Seongsan Gaya.

Situated around the mouth of the Nakdong River, an area with fertile plains, access to the sea, and rich iron deposits, Gaya had an economy based on agriculture and fishing as well as trade. It was particularly known for its ironworking, as Byeonhan had been before it. Gaya exported abundant quantities of iron armor and weaponry to Baekje and the kingdom of Wa in Yamato period Japan. In contrast to the largely commercial and non-political ties of Byeonhan, Gaya seems to have attempted to maintain strong political ties with these kingdoms as well.

The various Gaya mini-states formed a confederacy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries centred around Geumgwan Gaya in modern Gimhae. After a period of decline, the confederacy was revived around the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries, this time centred around Daegaya of modern Goryeong, but it was unable to defend itself for long against Silla and Baekje. In 562, Daegaya, the last of the Gaya states, fell to Silla.

The nature of the relationship between the Japanese kingdom of Wa and the Gaya states has been a matter of extensive controversy. Japanese scholars traditionally have argued, on the basis of various sources including the Nihonshoki, that Gaya was a colony or tributary of Wa. Korean scholars have rejected this, on the basis of Korean sources which make no mention of Japanese suzerainty. Today, most scholars regardless of nationality concede that the relationship between Gaya and Wa was close, but not colonial.

Geumgwan/Bon Gaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Geumgwan Gaya
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Geumgwan Gaya
McCune-Reischauer Kŭmgwan Kaya
Hangul 금관 가야
Hanja 金官伽倻

*My cousin can trace his lineage to this royal line. ....It is also thought through a legend that the first king of Geumgwan Gaya took an Indian queen by the name of Hwangok (Yellow Jade), who is more commonly known as Queen Heo. This is a bit of a mystery though as she claimed to have come from a nation called Ayuta. No such nation has ever existed.

Geumgwan Gaya, also known as Bongaya (본가야, 本伽倻) (meaning the "original Gaya") was a major chiefdom of the Gaya confederacy. It is believed to have been located in modern-day Gimhae, South Gyeongsang, near the mouth of the Nakdong River. Aided by its strategic location, this kingdom played a dominant role in the regional affairs from the Byeonhan period forward.

According to Samguk Yusa, Geumgwan Gaya was made of 9 villages and King Suro united them. Geumgwan Gaya existed from 43 to 532.

Royal tombs attributed to Geumgwan Gaya were unearthed in Daeseong-dong, Gimhae in the early 1990s. Interestingly, this tomb complex appears to have been used since Byeonhan times. However, a sharp break in burial styles is found around the later 3rd century. Burial forms associated with North Asian nomadic peoples, such as the burial of horses with the dead, suddenly replace earlier forms in the tombs of the elite (Cheol 2000). In addition, earlier burials were systematically destroyed. Partially on this basis, Cheol (2000) argues that the rulership of Geumgwan Gaya was taken over by invaders from Buyeo after the decline of the Chinese commanderies.

After Geumgwan Gaya capitulated to Silla in 532, the royal house was accepted into the Silla aristocracy and given the rank of "true bone," the second-highest level of the Silla bone rank system.



Daegaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Daegaya
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Daegaya
McCune-Reischauer Taegaya
Hangul 대가야
Hanja 大伽倻

*Daegaya is thought to have evlovled from the Mioyama state, a part of the Byeonhan confederacy.

Daegaya was a major chiefdom of the Gaya confederacy during the Korean Three Kingdoms period. Daegaya was located in present-day Goryeong County, in North Gyeongsang Province of South Korea. (It should not be confused with Goryeong Gaya, which was located in present-day Jinju.)

According to "Geographies" in Samguk Sagi, Daegaya existed for about 520 years from the first king, Ijinashi (이진아시왕), to the last, King Doseolji (도설지왕). Daegaya had sixteen kings from King Ininashi to King Doseolji but only four of those are known; 1st King Ijinashi, 9th King Anoi, 16th King Doseolji and King Haji with uncertain generation.

Daegaya played a major role in the Gaya confederacy in 5th century, because of their advanced steel-making craft. Incidental historical records and archeological findings indicate a highly stratified aristocratic society at this time.

King Haji (하지, 荷知) of Daegaya sent an embassy to Namje (南齊, the Southern Qi Dynasty) in 479. According to Chinese records, he received a rank of the third order (one rank below Baekje and Silla). King Haji also allied with Baekje and Silla to attack Goguryeo in 481. Daegaya developed very quickly in the 5th century but their progress was blocked by Baekje and Silla. Daegaya allied with Baekje and joined with Baekje forces in attacking Silla at the battle of Gwan Mountain Fortress in 554. However, both Baekje and Gaya suffered heavy losses, and Daegaya earned the enmity of Silla. This confrontation policy alienated the other states, and Daegaya lost its leadership of Gaya to Ara Gaya.

Daegaya fell to the Silla army under general Lee Sabu in 562.

Ara Gaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Ara Gaya
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Ara Gaya
McCune-Reischauer Ara Kaya or Aragaya
Hangul 아라가야
Hanja 阿羅伽倻

Ara Gaya, also known as Asiryangguk (아시량국, 阿尸良國), Ana Gaya (아나가야, 阿羅伽倻), and Alla (안라, 安羅) was a kingdom of the Gaya confederacy, in modern day Haman County of South Korea. As the confrontational foreign policy of Daegaya failed, Ara Gaya and its less confrontational policy gained support in 540s.

By the 6th century, Gaya could not risk hostility of either Baekje or Silla. Ara Gaya put a great deal of effort into pursuing a diplomatic solution for maintaining its independence, including hostage of international meetings with Baekje, Silla and Japan.

But Gaya was too weak by that time; Northwestern Gaya states fell to Baekje influence and southeastern Gaya states fell to Silla influence. Ara Gaya sought its independence by allying with Goguryeo and asked Goguryeo to invade Baekje in 548. But this attempt to weaken Baekje influence failed as Goguryeo failed this campaign.

In 550s, Silla defeated Baekje and occupied Gyeonggi area. Silla also invaded Gaya to eliminate Baekje influence of Gaya. Ara Gaya surrendered to Silla in 559.

Goryeong Gaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Goryeong Gaya
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Goryeong Gaya
McCune-Reischauer Koryong Kaya
Hangul 고령가야
Hanja 古寧伽倻

Goryeong Gaya was one of the lesser chiefdoms of the Gaya confederation during the Korean Three Kingdoms period. It was centered in present-day Sangju City, North Gyeongsang province, South Korea. Legend indicates that it was founded by a King Taejo, to whom a tomb on Obong Mountain in Hamchang-eup, Sangju, is attributed.

An alliance of marriage was established between Silla and Goryeong Gaya in 522. For this reason, Goryeong Gaya did not participate in the Baekje-Daegaya offensive against Silla in 538. However, it does not appear that this alliance was of any lasting benefit to the kingdom. According to both the Samguk Sagi and the Japanese chronicle Nihonshoki, Goryeong Gaya fell to Silla in 562. This was the same year that Daegaya was overrun in the south.

The members of today's Hamchang Kim lineage trace their origins to the kings of Goryeong Gaya

Bihwa Gaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Bihwa Gaya
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Bihwa Gaya
McCune-Reischauer Pihwa Kaya
Hangul 비화가야
Hanja 非火伽倻

Bihwa Gaya, also known as Bijabal, was one of the kingdoms of the Gaya confederacy. It was based near the modern city center of Changnyeong County in South Gyeongsang province, South Korea. It was conquered by Silla in the 6th century, before 555.

Bihwa Gaya is mentioned in the Goryeo Saryak and under the name "Bijabal" in the Japanese chronicle Nihonshoki. It may have arisen from the 3rd century Jinhan state of Bulsaguk (불사국, 不斯國) which was probably also located in Changnyeong. Archeological evidence suggests a close relationship between Bihwa Gaya and nearby Silla, although as part of the Gaya confederacy Bihwa would frequently have been at war with Silla.

The royal tombs of Bihwa Gaya are located in Gyo-dong, Changnyeong-eup, in Changnyeong County. Some of these tombs were excavated during the period of Japanese occupation in 1918, but all records of that excavation have been lost. In 1973, a team of researchers from Busan's Dong-A University excavated several remaining tombs. These tombs appear to have been constructed in the 5th century. Some of them show indications of live burial of members of the royal household. In 1996, a museum focused on the relics of the Bihwa Gaya period opened adjacent to the tombs.

[Tyler]

I knew Korea had a Three Kingdoms period but now I know more about it thanks.

[Gubook Janggoon]

Now for two often over looked island nations that existed during the 3 kingdoms period. Tamna and Usanguk.

Tamna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Tamna Kingdom
Korean Name
Revised Romanization T'amna-guk
McCune-Reischauer Tamna-guk
Hangul 탐라국
Hanja 耽羅國



The kingdom of Tamna or Tamnaguk ruled Jeju Island from ancient times until it was absorbed by the Korean Joseon Dynasty in 1404. This kingdom is also sometimes known as Tangna (탁라), Seomna (섭나), and Tammola (탐모라). All of these names mean "island country."

There is no historical record of the founding or early history of Tamna. One legend tells that the three divine founders of the country -- Go (고), Yang (양), and Bu (부) -- emerged from three holes in the ground in the 24th century BC. These holes, known as the Samseonghyeol (삼성혈), are still preserved in Jeju City.

Archeological evidence indicates that the people of Tamna were engaging in active trade with Han Dynasty China and Yayoi Japan, as well as mainland Korea, by the first century AD. The first historical reference to the kingdom may come in the third century AD, in the chronicle of the Chinese Three Kingdoms period called the Sanguozhi. The Sanguozhi reports a strange people living on a large island near Korea, which it calls "Juho." These people, who had a distinctive language and culture, engaged in trade with the Mahan people of the mainland. However, the identity of Juho with Tamna has been disputed by authorities such as the North Korean scholar Lee Chi-Rin (이지린), who claims that Juho was a small island in the West Sea (Yellow Sea) .

In 476, according to the Samguk Sagi, Tamna entered into a tributary relationship with Baekje, which controlled the southwestern Korean peninsula and enjoyed strong ties with Japan. It was thus a natural partner for Tamna. As Baekje waned, Tamna turned to Silla instead. At some point near the end of the Three Kingdoms period, Tamna officially subjugated itself to Silla. Silla then conferred on the three princes of Tamna the titles which they would hold for the remainder of the kingdom's history: Seongju (성주, 星主), Wangja (왕자, 王子), and Donae (도내, 都內). Some sources including [1] (http://100.naver.com/100.php?id=43332) indicate that this took place during the reign of King Munmu of Silla in the late 7th century AD.

Tamna briefly reclaimed its independence after the fall of Silla in 935. However, it was subjugated by the Goryeo Dynasty in 938, and officially annexed in 1105. However, the kingdom maintained local autonomy until 1404, when King Taejong of Joseon placed it under firm central control and brought the Tamna kingdom to an end. One interesting event that took place during these later years of Tamna was the Sambyeolcho Rebellion, which came to a bloody end on Jeju Island in 1274.


Usan-guk
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from Usanguk)
Usan-guk
Korean Name
Revised Romanization/
McCune-Reischauer Usan-guk
Hangul 우산국
Hanja 于山國



The nation of Usan-guk occupied Ulleung-do and the adjacent islands (including the Liancourt Rocks) during the Korean Three Kingdoms period. According to the Samguk Sagi, it was conquered by the Silla general Lee Sabu (이사부, 異斯夫)in 512. He is said to have used wooden lions or tigers to intimidate the residents into surrendering. Usan-guk rarely enters into historical records, but appears to have continued a largely autonomous existence until annexed by Goryeo in 930.

[Gubook Janggoon]

Now it's time for the Unified Shilla and Barhae(Bohai) section. It's sometimes referred to as the period of South and North States.

Map. Barhae is on top and Shilla on bottom. Barhae later expands west to encompass all of the Liao-tung penninsula.



Unified Silla
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Unified Silla
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Tongil Silla
McCune-Reischauer
Hangul 통일 신라
Hanja 統一新羅

Unified Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla after 668.

During the first few centuries of the first millennium of the Common Era, the Korean Peninsula was divided up between three warring kingdoms, Silla, Baekje and Goguryeo. This era of Korean history is known as the Three Kingdoms period.

In 660, King Munmu of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, defeated General Ge-Baek and conquered Baekje. In 661, he moved on Goguryeo but was repelled. King Munmu ordered General Kim to launch another campaign in 667 and, in 668, Goguryeo fell. King Munmu was the first ruler ever to look upon the Korean Peninsula as a single entity. As such, the post-668 Silla kingdom is often referred to as Unified Silla.

Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under King Gyeongsun, it fell to Goryeo in 935.

The name "Unified Silla" is a term that likely dates from after the division of Korea in 1945, and to some degree likely reflects modern-day political longings. Because of this, some historians suggest the term "South and North States" to include Balhae.


Barhae/Balhae (Chinese Bohai)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from Barhae)
Bohai
Chinese Name
Chinese characters 渤海
Pinyin Bóhǎi;
Wade-Giles Po-hai
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Balhae
McCune-Reischauer Palhae
Hangul 발해
Hanja 渤海


Bohai (or in the Korean context Balhae) was a kingdom in northeast Asia from AD 698 to 926, occupying parts of Manchuria, northern Korea, and Russian Far East. Bohai was founded by Da Zuorong of the Sumo Mohe tribe and integrated several Mohe tribes and Goguryeo remnants. It was conquered by the Khitan in 926.

In the confusion of the Khitan rebellion against Tang in 696, Sumo Mohe tribe, led by Qiqi Zhongxiang and Qisi Piyu, escaped eastward to their homeland. The two leaders died but Da Zuorong, the son of Qiqi Zhongxiang, established the State of Zhen (震 or 振). Da Zuorong established his capital at Dongmu Mountain in the south of today's Jilin province. Since it gained power under protection of the northern nomadic empire of Gokturk, Tang gave Da Zuorong the title of "Prefecture King of Bohai" in 713. Bohai had been a Chinese prefecture, but since then referred to the kingdom. The title was upgraded to "State King of Bohai" in 762.

The second king Da Wuyi (Wuwang), who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Bohai, which resumed tributary mission to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the rear. Bohai kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Bohai became a buffer zone for the region.

The third king Da Jinmao (Wen Wang) expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755.

After destroyed Bohai in 926, the Khitan put the state of Dongdan, followed by the annexation by Liao in 936. Bohai aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but small fragments of the state remained semi-independent. Some Bohai people fled southward to Goryeo, including a son of the last king. Some descendants of the royal family live in Korea, changing their family name to Tae (太). The Jurchen Jin Dynasty favored the Bohai people as well as the Khitans. The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors were mothered by Bohai concubines. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Bohai from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo (Korean), Khitan and Jurchen. This suggests that the Bohai people still preserved their identity.
[edit]

Characterization and political exploitation

The kingdom that straddled the current borders of the PRC, North Korea and Russia has been positioned and politically exploited in various ways.

Bohai was once likened to Manchukuo for its friendly relationship with Japan. Currently Japanese scholars oppose both the Korean and Chinese political exploitations and try to treat Bohai as itself.

In North and South Korea, Bohai is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North-South period" (with Silla) today, although such a trend has been marginal for a long time. Based on their belief that Goguryeo was a Korean state, they emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and degrade that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were Mohe, North Korean historians think Bohai ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Both claims gain little support outside Korea.

The PRC projects the current border to history. It treat everything that happened in its territory as part of its history. Today the Chinese historians consider Bohai as a local government of the Tang, and think it was ruled by the Bohai ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. They stress the importance of the Bohai-Tang relationship.

Russian scholars think of Bohai as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence. They put weight on archaeology.

The genealogy of the royal family is also disputed. Koreans claims that the founder Da Zuorong was a Goguryeo. They trusted the description of the Old Book of the Tang and discredit that of the New Book of the Tang for unknown reasons. Non-Korean scholars criticize that they made arbitary interpretation for historical sources which depends on whether they suits to their nationalistic belief or not. The Old Book of the Tang says that Da Zuorong of the Bohai Mohe was a "variant" of Goryeo [Goguryeo] (高麗別種) while the New Book of the Tang states "originally Sumo Mohe affiliated to Goryeo."

[Gubook Janggoon]

Liu Ce, on Jan 1 2005, 11:04 PM, said:

I knew Korea had a Three Kingdoms period but now I know more about it thanks.

<{POST_SNAPBACK}>

Hey no problem . This is why I joined these history forums to spread Korean history.


Now it's time for the Later 3 Kingdoms and Unification by Goryeo.
Note: Shilla continues into this time until annexed by Goryeo so I won't post anything about them.

The Kingdoms are basically in the same positions. With Goryeo in the north, Hubaekje in the south west, and good 'ol Shilla in the South East...


Basic overview

Later Three Kingdoms of Korea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The Later Three Kingdoms of Korea (892-936) consisted of Silla, Hubaekje (later Baekje), and Taebong (also known as Hugoguryeo, or Later Goguryeo). The Later Goguryeo and Later Baekje kingdoms were viewed as heirs to the earlier Three Kingdoms of Korea, which had been conquered by Silla. This period arose out of national unrest during the reign of Queen Jinseong of Silla.

The kingdom of Taebong, originally led by Gung Ye, was taken over by Wanggeon, who defeated Hubaekje and received the surrender of Silla. Wanggeon proclaimed the kingdom of Goryeo in 936, officially putting an end to the Later Three Kingdoms period.

Taebong
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from Later Goguryeo)
Taebong
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Taebong
McCune-Reischauer T'aebong
Hangul 태봉
Hanja 泰封

Taebong was a state established by Gung Ye(궁예, 弓裔) on the Korean peninsula in 901, during the Later Three Kingdoms period.

Gung Ye was known as a B****** son of King Heonan or of King Gyeongmun. A soothsayer gave the King a prophecy that the new-born baby will bring disaster to the Silla, so the King ordered servants to kill him.

However, his nurse hid Gung Ye and raised him secretly; and joined Yang Gil's rebellion force in 892. Silla, after nearly a millennium of history, was declining fast and Gung Ye soon found his own rebellion in Songak (present-day Kaesong) in 898. He eventually defeated Yang Gil and other local lords in central Korea and claimed himself a king in 901.

Gung Ye named his state Hu-Goguryeo (Meaning "Later Goguryeo") or, in shorthand, Goryeo. It was changed to Majin (마진, 摩震) in 901, and to Taebong in 911. Taebong at its peak expanded to present-day provinces of North and South Hwanghae, Gyeonggi, Gangwon, South P'yŏngan and North Chungcheong.


In later days, Gung Ye claimed himself a Buddha and became a tyrant who sentenced death to anyone opposing him, including his wife Kang. Four generals of Taebong, Hong Yu(홍유, 洪儒), Bae Hyon-Gyong(배현경, 裵玄慶), Shin Sung-Gyon(신숭겸, 申崇謙) and Bok Ji-Gyom(복지겸, 卜智謙) overthrew Taebong and established Wanggeon(왕건, 王建) as the King in 918 and Goryeo Dynasty began.

Still, Taebong influenced Goryeo culturally. Gung Ye was originally a Buddhist monk. He encouraged Buddhism and changed the manners of national ceremonies to Buddhist way including Palgwanhoe (팔관회, 八關會) and Sukdeungrong (석등롱, 石燈籠). These influences survived after death of Gung Ye and fall of Taebong.



Hubaekje
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Hubaekje
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Hubaekje
McCune-Reischauer Hu-paekche
Hangul 후백제
Hanja 後百濟

Hubaekje, or Later Baekje, was one of the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea. It was officially founded by the disaffected Silla general Gyeon Hwon in 900, and fell to Wanggeon's Goryeo army in 936. Its capital was at Jeonju, in present-day North Jeolla province. Most of our information about the kingdom comes from the accounts found in the Samguk Yusa and Samguk Sagi, which largely coincide.


Background

When it began with his attack on Gwangju in 892, Gyeon Hwon's was only one among numerous rebellions which sprouted up against the weak Silla rulers in late 9th century. Many of these rebellions were initially triggered by the Silla decision to use force to collect taxes on the peasantry in 889 (Lee, 1984, p. 98). At this time most of the power on the peninsula was held by local gentry, who lacked strong loyalty to the central government. It was thus fairly easy for rebellions led by disaffected military officials to gain steam.

In its name, Hubaekje sought to establish itself as the legitimate successor to the ancient kingdom of Baekje which had ruled the southwestern Korean peninsula until conquered by Silla in 660.

Internal affairs

For all but the last year of its existence, Hubaekje was ruled by Gyeon Hwon, and his personal style of rule played a key role in the kingdom's fate.

After declaring himself king, Gyeon Hwon took numerous wives, and is said to have had 10 sons by them in addition to the 8 borne by his first wife. This laid the groundwork for the strife which ended the kingdom's existence.

In 935, Gyeon Hwon chose his fourth son Geumgang over the elder sons as the crown prince of Hubaekje. At this the eldest son, Singeom, conspiring with his brothers, had his father confined to Geumsan Temple in Gimje. Singeom killed Prince Geumgang and took the throne for himself. However, Gyeon Hwon escaped to Goryeo.

Military affairs

For much of its existence, Hubaekje was troubled by Wanggeon's naval raids along its coast. These worked to disrupt trade and diplomatic ties with China.

Hubaekje possessed considerable military strength, and the Lee (1984, p. 99) writes of Gyeon Hwon that "Had Kungye and Wang Kŏn not stood in his way, he surely would have had little difficulty in toppling Silla." Hubaekje showed its greatest strength in 927. In that year its armies attacked and pillaged the Silla capital at Gyeongju, slaying King Gyeongae and establishing King Gyeongsun as the ruler. Before the attack, Silla had sent for aid to Goryeo, and Wanggeon arrived with a large army shortly after Gyeongju was taken. The two armies met near Palgong Mountain in present-day Daegu. Wanggeon's forces in the battle reportedly numbered 10,000 men. Hubaekje triumphed, and Wanggeon himself only escaped through the daring self-sacrifice of his general Gim Rak.

However, when the two armies met again at the Battle of Gochang near Andong in 930, Goryeo scored a decisive victory. Hubaekje was pushed back into its heartland, and there suffered a further crippling defeat at Hongseong in 934.


Diplomatic ties

As Wanggeon sought to maintain legitimacy through diplomatic ties with northern China, Gyeon Hwon strove to do the same by maintaining ties with the rulers of southern China, particularly Wuyue. However, because Hubaekje's existence largely coincided with the turbulent Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China, neither side was able to parlay these ties into military support.


Fall

After he was deposed by his sons in 935 and fled to Goryeo, Gyeon Hwon himself came to lead the armies against Hubaekje. Together with Wanggeon, the Samguk Yusa reports that he led an army of 100,000 against his former kingdom. The Goryeo and Hubaekje armies met at Seonsan, today part of Gumi in North Gyeongsang province, and the Hubaekje forces were destroyed. Hubaekje thus finally fell in 936, one year after King Gyeongsun had surrendered Silla to Wanggeon. The battle of Seonsan thus marked the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period.

In his own characteristically open-handed style, Wanggeon conferred a title upon the defeated leader Singeom. Singeom's younger brothers Yanggeom and Yonggeom, who were judged to have been to blame for the coup d'etat, were sent into exile.


Goryeo and Unified Goryeo

*Note Taebong evolved into Goryeo

Goryeo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Goryeo
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Goryeo
McCune-Reischauer Koryŏ
Hangul 고려
Hanja 高麗

The Goryeo kingdom ruled Korea from the fall of Silla in 935 until the founding of Joseon in 1392. The name "Goryeo" is a shortened form of "Goguryeo," the name of a kingdom in northern Korea which was conquered by Silla in 668. The English name "Korea" comes from "Goryeo."

The Goryeo period was a culturally rich one in Korea's history. Two of the period's most notable products are Goryeo pottery — the famous Korean celadon pottery — and the Tripitaka Koreana — the Buddhist scriptures (Tripitaka) carved onto roughly 80,000 woodblocks.

It is now known as a kingdom, but it was de facto an empire. All terminologies used in the court of Goryeo was that of an empire, not of a kingdom. Capital Gaeseong was called "Imperial Capital (皇都)" and palace as "Imperial Palace (皇城)." Other terms like Your Majesty (陛下), Prince (太子), Empress (太后), Imperial Ordiance (詔 or 勅) also suggest Goryeo was an empire itself. After the Mongol invasion, Mongols forced Goryeo to give up on its status as an empire and it became a kingdom under Mongolian imperial sphere.
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History

As Unified Silla weakened and lost control over local lords, the country entered a period of civil war and rebellion. Major rebellion forces were led by Gung Ye (궁예弓裔, ?~918), Gi Hwin (기휜), Yang Gil (양길) and Gyeon Hwon (견훤). Two new kingdoms were established: Hugoguryeo (후고구려, Later Goguryeo, later renamed Taebong (태봉)) by Gung Ye, and Hubaekje (후백제, later Baekje) by Gyeonhwon. This period is known as the Later Three Kingdoms era.

Wanggeon (왕건), who was a lord of Songak (present-day Kaesong), joined Taebong but overthrew Gung Ye and established Goryeo in 918. The Later Three Kingdoms era ended as Goryeo annexed Silla and defeated Hubaekje in 936.

In order to strengthen power of central government, Gwangjong, the 4th King, made a series of laws including that freeing slaves in 958, and the one creating the exam for hiring civil officials. Gwangjong also proclaimed himself Emperor, independent from any other countries.

The 5th king, Gyeongjong (경종, 景宗) launched land-ownership reformation called Jeonshigwa (전시과田柴科) and the 6th King Sungjong(성종, 成宗) appointed officials to local areas, which were previously succeeded by the lords. By the time of 11th King Munjong (문종, 文宗) the central government of Goryeo gained complete authority and power over local lords. Munjong and later kings emphasized the importance of civilian leadership over the military.

The House Lee of Inju (인주이씨, 仁州李氏) married the kings from Munjong to the 17th king, Injong. Eventually the Lees gained more power than the king himself. This led to the coup of Lee Jagyeom in 1126. The coup failed but the power of monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility.

In 1135, Myo Chung argued to move the capital to Seogyeong (present day P'yŏngyang). This proposal divided the nobilities of Goryeo in half. One faction, led by Myo Chung, believed in moving the capital to Pyongyang and expanding into Manchuria. The other one, led by Kim Busik (author of the Samguk Sagi), wanted to keep the status quo. Myo Chung failed to persuade the King and rebelled against the central government, but failed.

In 1170, a group of army officers led by Jeong Jungbu (정중부, 鄭仲夫) and Lee Uibang (이의방, 李義方), launched a coup d'état and succeeded. King Injong went into exile and Myeongjong (명종,明宗) was made king. Military rule of Goryeo began.

*Note...not realy relavent but I'm a part of the same clan as Jeong Jungbu (정중부, 鄭仲夫)

In 1231, Mongolians under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo, as part of a general campaign to conquer China. The throne moved to Ganghwa Island in the Bay of Gyeonggi, in 1232. The military ruler of the time Choi Chungheon (최충헌, 崔忠獻) insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for decades but finally surrendered in 1259. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean peninsula. The Goryeo dynasty survived but it remained under Mongolian control until King Gongmin began to push Mongolian forces back.

Tripitaka Koreana
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Tripitaka Koreana
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Goryeo Daejanggyeong
McCune-Reischauer Koryŏ Taejanggyŏng
Hangul 고려 대장경
Hanja 高麗大藏經
Eighty-Thousand Tripitaka
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Palman Daejanggyeong
McCune-Reischauer ? Taejanggyŏng
Hangul 팔만 대장경
Hanja 八萬大藏經



The Tripitaka Koreana (lit. Goryeo Tripitaka) or Palman Daejanggyeong ("Eighty-Thousand[-Woodblock] Tripitaka") is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka (Buddhist scriptures), carved onto roughly 80,000 wooden printing blocks. The work is stored in Haeinsa, a Buddhist temple in South Gyeongsang province, in South Korea.

The Tripitaka Koreana was first carved in the 13th century. The Korean royal family at the time was under siege, exiled to Ganghwa Island while Mongols took control of the mainland; the act of carving the woodblocks was considered to be a way of bringing about a change in fortune. This was not to be, however, and the Mongols eventually destroyed the woodblocks after the Korean king surrendered to them. A century later, another king had a second set carved, again on Ganghwa Island; these survived, and were eventually moved to Haeinsa. The name "Goryeo Tripitaka" comes from "Goryeo", the name of Korea during the 13th and 14th centuries; the more colloquial name "Eighty-Thousand[-Woodblock] Tripitaka" comes from approximate number of woodblocks that make up the collection.

Sambyeolcho Rebellion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Sambyeolcho Rebellion
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Sambyeolcho-ui-nan
McCune-Reischauer Sambyŏlch'o-ŭi-nan
Hangul 삼별초의 난
Hanja 三別抄-亂

The Sambyeolcho Rebellion (1270-1273) was a Korean rebellion against the Goryeo Dynasty during the Mongol invasion.

Unlike other rebels, Sambyeolcho had assumed the reins of Goryeo government before the rebellion. They were private armies of the Choe family, who had maintained a military dictatorship. When the Mongols invaded Goryeo, Choes' military government under the nominal king fled to Ganghwado Island in 1232 and resisted the Mongol invasion. Unfortunately because of its fragile foundation Goryeo faced frequent rebellions. Some of them were crushed by the government, but the rebels in the northern area defected to the Mongols and their areas were annexed to the Mongol Empire. Eventually the military government was overthrown in a coup and Goryeo surrendered.

Regaining power from military officials with the support of the Mongols, the king decided to abolish Sambyeolcho in 1270. However Sambyeolcho, led by Bae Jungson, revolted against the government. They set up their own king and government on Jindo Island, located in the southwestern region. In 1271 the leader Bae asked Khubilai Khan to place his land under the direct rule of the Empire as other rebels did, but was refused. After several months Jindo fell to combined Goryeo and Mongol armies. At the end of the year the remnants led by Gim Tongjeong invaded Tamna Kingdom on Jeju Island and banished the Tamna king. In 1274 they were crushed by Goryeo and Mongols. As a result the Mongols directly controlled Tamna until 1294.

Today the Sambyeolcho insurgents are often praised as national heroes who made stubborn resistance to foreign invasions. In 1978 a monument to honor the Sambyeolcho Rebellion was built on Jeju. Other relics such as the Yongjang fortress on Jindo island are also maintained as tourist attractions

Back to Goryeo

In 1388, King U planned a campaign to invade present-day Liaoning of China. King U put the general Yi Seonggye (later Taejo) in charge, but he stopped at the border and rebelled. Goryeo fell to General Yi in 1392. He then established the Joseon Dynasty.

Today, Korea and related forms such as Corea and Corée that derive from Goryeo are used as names for the country in most languages around the world. Goryeo is also sometimes used as a politically neutral name in the Korean language for the whole of Korea.

[Gubook Janggoon]

Joseon, the Daehan Empire, Japanese Rule, the fate of the royal family, and Korea after the Second World War




Joseon Dynasty
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.


Joseon Dynasty
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Joseon Wangjo
McCune-Reischauer Chosŏn Wangjo
Hangul 조선 왕조
Hanja 朝鮮王朝

Nobility Wear

Official Wear (In picture all Chinese style except first 3)



The Joseon Dynasty was founded in 1392 by Korean general Yi Seonggye (Taejo), who overthrew the former kingdom of Goryeo and established the kingdom of Joseon in a coup d'état, simultaneously ending the period of Mongol domination that had begun in 1259. It is sometimes referred to as Yi Dynasty, Lee Dynasty, or Yi Joseon after its founder; this name, however, is not popular in Korea. Choson Dynasty is also sometimes used. The current head of the Korean Royal Family and the Chosun dynastic heir within Korea is His Imperial Highness the Crown Prince Yi.
Contents [showhide]

Overview of Joseon/Chosun history

During the Joseon Dynasty, a centralized administrative system was installed and Confucianism adopted, with an attending new moral system established in Korea. The Joseon Dynasty also presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which it developed the Goryeo culture into a unique, graceful culture of a high standard. Many Korean inventions are from this period, such as the first Oriental sun dial and the world's first water-powered clock. The metal printing press invented during the Goryeo dynasty spread to Japan and China, which previously used the wood-block printing press, during the Joseon Dynasty. In addition, the royal dynasty built several new fortresses, trading harbors, and beautiful palaces.

*Hanguel was also invented by the third king, Sejong.
Sejong

Current Hangul Letters

Hangul

Hangul
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Hangul
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Hangeul
McCune-Reischauer Han'gŭl
Hangul 한글

Hangul is the native alphabet used to write the Korean language (as opposed to the Hanja system borrowed from China). For other romanized spellings of "Hangul," please see Names below.

While Hangul writing may appear ideographic to the uninitiated, it is actually phonetic. Each Hangul syllabic block consists of several of the 24 letters (jamo)—14 consonants and 10 vowels. Historically, the alphabet had 3 more consonants and 1 more vowel (See Obsolete Jamo). For a table of phonological descriptions of each letters, see Phonology.
Names


Official names

* The modern name Hangul (한글) is a term coined by Ju Si-gyeong in 1912 that means "great script" (in archaic Korean) and "Korean script" (in modern Korean) simultaneously. It cannot be written in Hanja, though the first syllable Han (한), if used in the sense of "Korean," may be written as 韓. It is pronounced [hanɡɯl] (IPA), and can be Romanized in the following ways:
o Hangeul or "Han-geul" in Revised Romanization of Korean; the Korean government uses this (official) spelling in all their English publications and encourages it for all purposes. Many recent publications have adopted this spelling.
o Han'gŭl in McCune-Reischauer (when used as an English word, it is often rendered without any diacritic: Hangul, or sometimes without capitalization: hangul, and it appears thus in English dictionaries)
o Hankul in Yale Romanization
* The original name was Hunmin Jeongeum (see #History)
* North Koreans prefer to call it Chosŏn'gŭl (조선글), for reasons related to the different Names of Korea.



Alternative names

* Jeongeum, short for the official Hunmin Jeongeum (see #History)
* Urigeul (우리글 "our script") is used in both the North and South, but not by non-Koreans.

Hangul has been occasionally denigrated by those who preferred the traditional Hanja writing at least until the early twentieth century, A.D:

* Eonmun (언문 諺文 "vernacular script").
* Amkeul (암클 "females’ script"): 암 is a prefix to a noun that signifies it is feminine. Women were traditionally considered inferior to men in Korea.
* Ahaegeul (아해글 "children‘s script")

However the use of Hanja in writing has become very rare in the past several decades and those names are considered archaic.
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History

Hangul was promulgated by the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty, Sejong the Great, after being developed under his guidance by a team of researchers. (Sejong is often called the inventor of Hangul: he was more likely the "idea person" who commissioned and backed the researchers, consulted with them, and published the final report.) The system was completed in 1443 or January 1444, and published in 1446 in a document, Hunmin Jeongeum, after which the alphabet was named. The publication date of Hunmin jeongeum, October 9, is Hangul Day in South Korea (Its North Korean equivalent is on January 15).

An old legend holds that King Sejong visualized the written characters after studying an intricate lattice, but this story is likely apocryphal. The book explains the scientific principles of the original letter designs (see jamo design).

King Sejong intended Hangul to be a suplement to Hanja, to be used primarily to educate people who did not know Hanja (hence the name Hunmin Jeongeum, which means "Correct Sounds for the Education of the People" in Sino-Korean). At that time, only male members of the aristocracy (Yangban) learned to read and write Hanja; since all written material was only available in Hanja, most Koreans were effectively illiterate. Hangul faced heavy opposition by the literate elite, who believed Hanja to be the only legitimate writing system. The protest by Choe Man-ri and other Confucians in 1444 is a typical example. Later on, the government became apathetic to Hangul. Yeonsan-gun, the 10th king, forbade the study or use of Hangul and banned Hangul documents in 1504, and King Jungjong abolished the Ministry of Eonmun in 1506. Hangul had been used by women and uneducated people.

When the idea of nationalism was introduced from Japan to Korea, Hangul began to be considered as a national symbol by some reformists. As a result of the Gabo Reform(갑오개혁) by pro-Japanese politicians, Hangul was adopted in official documents for the first time in 1894. After Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, Hangul was compulsorily taught in schools until Japan began the national mobilization policy in 1937.
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Jamo

"Jamo" (자모; 字母) are the letters that make up the Hangul alphabet. Ja means letter or character, and mo means mother; the name jamo signifies that the jamo are the building-blocks of Hangul.

There are 51 jamo, of which 24 are simple (not compounded) and equivalent to letters in the Roman alphabet. The remaining 27 are complex clusters formed by combining 2 or sometimes 3 jamo. Of the 24 simple jamo, 14 are consonants (ja'eum; 자음; 子音; literally, "child sound") and 10 are vowels (moeum; 모음; 母音; literally, "mother sound"). 5 of the consonants can be doubled to form 5 additional double consonants (see below), while another 11 complex consonantal clusters are formed by combining 2 different consonants. The vowels can be combined to form 11 additional diphthongs. Here is a summary of the numbers of jamo:

* 14 simple consonants
* 5 double consonants
* 11 complex consonants
* 10 simple vowels
* 11 diphthongs

Four of the simple vowels actually have shapes that are not elemental, but have extra short strokes signifying palatalization: ㅑ (ya), ㅕ (yeo), ㅛ (yo), and ㅠ (yu). These four are counted as part of the 24 rudimentary jamo (letters), because the palatalizing stroke taken out of context does not represent y at all. In fact, there is no separate jamo for y.

Of the basic consonants, ㅊ (chieut), ㅋ (kieuk), ㅌ (tieut), and ㅍ (pieup) are aspirated derivatives of ㅈ (jieut), ㄱ (gieok), ㄷ (digeut), and ㅂ (bieup) respectively, formed by combining the parent consonant with the jamo ㅎ (hieut).

The doubled consonants consist of two identical consonants placed beside each other horizontally. They are: ㄲ (kk), ㄸ (tt), ㅃ (pp), ㅆ (ss), and ㅉ (jj). Doubled consonants are not really pronounced twice, they are glottalized.

The sounds represented by the single and double consonantal jamo cannot be pronounced alone in normal speech.

There are three formal categories of jamo:

1. Initials (초성 ; 初聲 choseong): consonant(s) before the vowel(s) in a syllable (the onset). They include all five double-consonant jamo.
* Position: Placed at the top, the left, or the upper-left corner of the block.
* See: Hangul consonant tables#Initials
2. Medials or peaks (중성 ; 中聲 jungseong): All are vowels (the nucleus)
* Position: usually in the middle of a syllable, but can be at the end as well.

For a list of the medials, see #Vowel jamo design

3. Finals (종성 ; 終聲 jongseong): consonant(s) after the vowel(s) in a syllable (the coda). All basic finals are also initials, except The zero initial ㅇ is pronounced ng in the final position. However, the only cluster jamo that are both initials and finals are two of the double consonantal jamo: ㅆ (ss) and ㄲ (kk).
* Position: Placed at the bottom, right or lower-right corner of the block.
* See: Hangul consonant tables#Finals

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Jamo design

The shapes of the consonants were designed scientifically, and the vowels philosophically.
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Consonantal jamo design

The designs of the basic jamo consonant letters model the physical morphology of the tongue, palate, teeth and throat. The consonants can be divided into five groups, each with a basic shape, and one or more derived basic forms with additional strokes. The names in the brackets are the traditional Sino-Korean linguistic terminology.

* Velar consonants (아음 ; 牙音 ; a-eum; "molar sounds"):
o ㄱ g, ㅋ k
o Basic shape: ㄱ is the side view picture of the tongue back touching the velum (soft palate). (For illustration, access the external link below.)
* Alveolar consonants (설음 ; 舌音 ; seol-eum; "lingual sounds"):
o ㄴ n, ㄷ d, ㅌ t, ㄹ l
o Basic shape: ㄴ is the side view picture of the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge (teethridge).
* Bilabial consonants (순음 ; 唇音 ; sun-eum; "labial sounds"):
o ㅁ m, ㅂ b, ㅍ p
o Basic shape: ㅁ represents the outline of the lips.
* Dental sibilants (치음 ; 齒音 ; chieum; "dental sounds"):
o ㅅ s, ㅈ j, ㅊ ch
o Basic shape: ㅅ was originally shaped like a wedge /\, without the overlapping top slash. It signifies the side view of the teeth.
* Glottal consonants (후음 ; 喉音 ; hueum; "throat sounds"):
o ㅇ ng, ㅎ h
o Basic shape: ㅇ symbolizes the outline of the throat.

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Vowel jamo design

Vowel letters, on the other hand, consist of three elements:

* Horizontal line (which signifies the flat Earth)
* point (the round Heaven), which later becomes a short stroke
* vertical line (the upright Human)

Together, they form various combinations and represent different vowel sounds:

* Simple vowels:
o Horizontally written vowels: these tend to be high back vowels.
+ ㅗ o
+ ㅜ u
+ ㅡ eu (ŭ)
o Vertical written vowels: these tend to be mid/low central/front vowels.
+ ㅏ a
+ ㅓ eo (ŏ)
+ ㅣ i
* Compound (complex) vowels: combined simple vowels. the ㅣ here seems to be an indicator of umlauting.
o ㅐ = ㅏ + ㅣ
o ㅔ = ㅓ + ㅣ
o ㅘ = ㅗ + ㅏ
o ㅙ = ㅗ + ㅐ
o ㅚ = ㅗ + ㅣ
o ㅝ = ㅜ + ㅓ
o ㅞ = ㅜ + ㅓ + ㅣ
o ㅝ = ㅜ + ㅣ
o ㅢ = ㅡ + ㅣ
* Palatalized vowel: Romanized as y-, represented by an extra stroke attached to a line
o ㅑ = ㅏ + a stroke
o ㅕ = ㅓ + a stroke
o ㅛ = ㅗ + a stroke
o ㅠ = ㅜ + a stroke
o ㅒ = ㅐ + a stroke
o ㅖ = ㅔ + a stroke

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Jamo order

The alphabetical order of jamo does not mix the consonants and the vowels like the Western alphabets (Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet). The consonants are placed before the vowels. The modern order was set by Choi Sejin in 1527.

South Korean and North Korean governments endorse slightly different orders, but they both follow Choi Sejin's order of the basic jamo.
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South Korean order

The modern order of the consonantal jamo is:

ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ

Double consonantal jamo are placed immediately after its source simple jamo.

Medials' order is:

ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ

The fundamental (not necessarily basic) medials come first, with derived forms inserted in between, according to their types: 'additional stroke', 'palatalized', then 'palatalized with additional stroke'. For vertical vowels, the derived forms are listed in the order: w- (symbolically represented by ㅏ or ㅓ), then adds a stroke to w- (ㅐ), then just a stroke, without w-.
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North Korean order

Consonants:

ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ ㅇ

The first ㅇ represents the final sound /ng/. The second ㅇ represents the zero initial. Note that the double jamo are placed at the very end, before the zero ㅇ, but after all other jamo, rather than immediately after their respective source jamo as is done in South Korea.

Vowels:

ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅚ ㅟ ㅢ ㅘ ㅝ ㅙ ㅞ

ㅐ and ㅔ are placed after all basic vowels, not after ㅏ and ㅓ.
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Jamo names

The sequence of jamo is called "the ganada order" (가나다順), named after the first three consonant jamo of the arrangement (g, n, and d) affixed to the first vowel (a). They were named by Choi Sejin in 1527. North Korea has later changed the jamo names.
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Consonant jamo names

The modern consonants have two-syllable names, with the consonant coming at the beginning and end of the name, as follows:
Letter Name
ㄱ giyeok (기역)
ㄴ nieun (니은)
ㄷ digeut (디귿)
ㄹ rieul (리을)
ㅁ mieum (미음)
ㅂ bieup (비읍)
ㅅ shiot (시옷)
ㅇ ieung (이응)
ㅈ jieut (지읒)
ㅊ chieut (치읓)
ㅋ kieuk (키읔)
ㅌ tieut (티읕)
ㅍ pieup (피읖)
ㅎ hieut (히읗) (Note the irregular pronunciation of the final ㅎ)

All but three jamo are named in the format of letter + i + eu + letter. For example, t is tieut. The "letter + i" component makes up the first syllable, and "eu + letter" the second. For example, Choi writes bieup as 非 (bi) and 邑 (eup). The jamo g, d, and s are exceptions because there are no Hanja for euk, eut, and eus. Yeok (役) is used in place of euk. And since there is no Hanja that end in t and s, Choi chose two Hanja to be read in the native Korean gloss: 末 (kkeut "end") and 衣 (os "clothes"). Originally, Choi gave j, ch, k, t, p, and h the irregular one-syllable names of ji, chi, ki, ti, pi, and hi. But they were changed to the present regular forms in 1933.

The double consonants precede the parent consonant's name with the word ssang (쌍), meaning "twin" or "double". Thus:
Letter Name
ㄲ ssang giyeok (쌍 기역)
ㄸ ssang digeut (쌍 디귿)
ㅃ ssang bieup (쌍 비읍)
ㅆ ssang shiot (쌍 시옷)
ㅉ ssang jieut (쌍 지읒)
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Vowel jamo names

The vowels' names are simply the syllable formed by taking the letter ㅇ (ieung) and adding the vowel being named. Thus:
Letter Name
ㅏ a (아)
ㅐ ae (애)
ㅑ ya (야)
ㅒ yae (얘)
ㅓ eo (어)
ㅔ e (에)
ㅕ yeo (여)
ㅖ ye (예)
ㅗ o (오)
ㅘ wa (와)
ㅙ wae (왜)
ㅚ oe (외)
ㅛ yo (요)
ㅜ u (우)
ㅝ wo (워)
ㅞ we (웨)
ㅟ wi (위)
ㅠ yu (유)
ㅡ eu (으)
ㅢ ui (의)
ㅣ i (이)
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Obsolete jamo

The original additional jamo, called archaic or obsolete, are:

* ㆍ or 丶 (arae-a or araea 아래 아): Pronounced as [V] , similar to eo.

Typically seen on its own, or in the syllable ㆎ (area-ae)

* ㅿ (bansios, 반시옷) [z] (If your browser doesn't show it, the letter looks like an equilateral triangle.)
* ㆆ (yeorinhieuh, 여린히읗 or 된이응 "light hieuh" or "doubled ieung") [glottal fricative/stop]: "lighter than ㅎ and harsher than ㅇ".
* ㆁ (yetieung, 옛이응) [N]: Now merged into ㅇ (ieung), it is the traditional symbol for [N]. With some computer fonts, yetieung is shown as a less round version of ieung. The proper way of representing yetieung, however, is by showing a long peak, longer than what you would see on a serif version of ieung.

In addition, there are two obsolete derived (in form) jamo representing one single sound:

* ㅸ (gabyeoun bieup, 가벼운 비읍)
* ㆅ (ssanghieuh, 쌍히읗) [x']

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[B]
Syllabic blocks

To be able to be pronounced, some Hangul jamo must form blocks together, sometimes called "characters". Each Hangul block is a syllable consisting of two to three jamo (simple or cluster). The modern pattern is consonant + medial + (consonant). If a syllable ends with a vowel, then the syllable-final jamo is omitted altogether in writing. If a syllable starts with a vowel, however, ㅇ (ieung) is used as a filler instead of omitting the syllable-initial jamo. This is sensible, since modern Korean lacks a syllable-initial [N].

1. Two jamo: an initial + a medial (vowel)
2. Three jamo: an initial + a medial (vowel) + a final

The placement, or stacking, of jamo in the block follow set patterns:

1. Syllables that end in a vowel are written either vertically or horizontally, depending on the vowel.
* Vertical jamo: initial left of the vertical vowel: →
* Horizontal jamo: initial on top of the horizontal vowel: ↓

The zero initial is called a "placeholder", as regard to patterns

2. batchim (받침 - "supporting floor") When a syllable has an additional jamo (final), it adds to the above pattern, with the final at the bottom ("floor"):
* Syllables which have a vertical vowel and end in a final are written clockwise.
* Syllables which have a horizontal vowel and end in a final are written in a vertical stack.

The result is the same size and shape as a Hanja, and hence some Westerners confuse the syllabic blocks with Hanja.

There once were over 2,500 Hangul blocks, many of which have been eliminated. One of the deleted ones is ㅵ (bsd), entirely consonantal.

There was a very minor movement in the twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the jamo individually in a row. This would be difficult to read, because syllable ambiguity arises, namely, it becomes unclear when a syllable ends and another begins. Presumably the abolishment of syllabic blocks would necessitate inserting spaces in between all syllables. However, spaces are already presently employed in the Korean script to separate words. (See #Writing) This movement has gained very little support.
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Orthography

Until the 20th century, no orthography of Hangul had been established. Due to liaison, heavy consonant assimilation, dialectical variants and other reasons, a Korean word can be spelt in several different ways. King Sejong seemed to prefer morphophonemic spelling rather than phonemic one. However, since it was mainly used by uneducated people, Hangul was dominated by phonemic and inconsistent spelling.

After much trial and error, the Japanese Government-General of Chosen established the writing style of a mixture of Hanja and Hangul, modeled on the Japanese writing system. The government revised the rule for spelling in 1912, 1921 and 1930, which was relatively phonemic.

The Hangul Society, originally found by Ju Si-gyeong, announced a proposal for a new morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in the North and South. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for Hangul orthography is the called the Hangul Matchumbeop, whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education.
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Writing

Hangul can be written both horizontally and vertically. The latter method is traditional, akin to the Chinese style. The former style was promoted by Ju Si-gyeong, and has become overwhelmingly preferred.

Hangul's first appearance was in Hunmin Jeongeum, the 14th-century book that first described the script. At that time, Hangul were printed in lines of even thickness and without short serifs (beginning brushstrokes). This style can be found in books published before about 1900, and also today when Hangul is carved in stone (on statues, for example).

Over the centuries, as people slowly began to use Hangul and write it by hand, an ink-brush style developed, and calligraphers employed the same style of the lines and bending angles as they did in writing Chinese characters, to achieve a similar look. (This style is called Myeongjo in Korean, a translation of the Chinese Mingcho, which name is used to describe a Chinese computer font today.) The Myeongjo style is used today in the body of books, newspapers, and magazines. Some computer fonts, such as Mac Korean, reflect the ink-brush style.

In longhand writing, ink brushes have given way to ballpoint pens, and a square style has once again emerged. This style (lines of equal width and few curves) is widespread in computers, and most Web browsers have a square font like Microsoft GulimChe as their default, leading to a large amount of text that is now read and written in non-calligraphic fonts.

Pronunciation of the Hangul writing is occasionally not based strictly on Hangul jamo, but also follow specific irregular phonetic rules (see Korean language#Phonology). Until the twentieth century, Hangul was written in the surface form (as is pronounced), but now it is written in the deep form (as is etymologically).

Back to Joseon
In 1592 and 1597 Korea was invaded by Japanese troops in the Seven-Year War. These invasions were eventually thrown back in a series of naval battles with 1598 with Chinese help. During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and high-quality gunpowder, and the first cannon-bearing ironclad warships in world history. Following these events the kingdom became increasingly isolationist, as its rulers sought to cut off a great deal of contact with foreign countries.

Seven-Year War in Detail

The Seven-Year War (Chinese:壬辰倭亂; Korean: 임진 왜란 (Imjin Waeran, lit. "Japanese Turmoil of the Year Imjin"); Japanese: 文禄, 慶長の役, lit. "Battles of Bunroku and Keicho") was the conflict from 1592 to 1598 on the Korean peninsula, following two successive Japanese invasions of Korea.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi initiated two invasions of Korea, in 1592 and again in 1597, with the professed aim of conquering China. In both campaigns, the Japanese were defeated by the expeditionary armies of Ming Dynasty China and local Korean forces, notably the naval fleet of Yi Sun-sin.

The war brought the local political, economic, and social order in Korea to a state of complete collapse. It also carried dramatic consequences for East Asian history. For Korea, the horrible devastation would leave the country in a perpetually weakened state until the Japanese returned and annexed Korea in 1910. In addition, the cost of the conflict also helped to bankrupt the Ming Dynasty and led to its eventual collapse at the hand of the Manchus.


The first invasion

Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who established his hegemony in Japan in the latter part of the 16th century, had hoped but failed to receive cooperation from the Ming Dynasty in his attempt to make himself the new Shogun. Motivated in part also by a need to satisfy the perpetual land hunger of his vassals and find employment for restive samurai, he began making plans for the conquest of China. He first made his intentions to conquer China known to Mori Terumoto in 1586, then set about trying to realize it after he defeated the clans of Shimazu and Hojo. First he intended to secure the Korean peninsula as an invasion route for his forces. After King Seonjo refused his offer of an alliance against China and military access for the Japanese troops, Hideyoshi launched a war against Korea in 1592 to secure passage to China.

The Japanese invasion of 1592 with 160,000 troops had great initial success mainly due to the element of surprise and its use of firearms. Two armies, under Konishi Yukinage and Kato Kiyomasa, landed on the 25th and 26th of May and marched north. Konishi reached the Han River south of Seoul and entered the city on June 12, just 18 days after landing at Busan. King Seonjo and his court withdrew first to Songdo, then Pyongyang and finally to Uiju, on the Yalu River. Japanese troops ravaged many key towns in the southern part of Korea, took Pyongyang and advanced as far north as the Yalu and Tumen rivers. Korean marines and irregulars harassed the Japanese rear so no attempt was made by the Japanese to exploit their initial advantage.

In May and June, a small Korean fleet commanded by Yi Sun-sin destroyed several Japanese flotillas and wrought havoc on Japanese logistics. The Korean iron-roofed Geobukseon, or turtle ships, were technologically superior in almost every way. In all perhaps 72 Japanese vessels were sunk by the end of June.

Admiral Yi


In July, the Wanli Emperor, responding to King Seonjo's request for aid, sent a small force of 5,000, which was not enough to fend off the Japanese. At this juncture Hideyoshi, after suffering numerous setbacks, including logistical problems caused by Korean saboteurs and major naval defeats at the hands of the Korean navy, proposed to China the division of Korea — the north as a self-governing Chinese satellite, and the south to remain in Japanese hands. The peace talks were mostly carried out by Konishi Yukinaga, who did most of the fighting against the Chinese. The offer was promptly rejected.

Having seen the token forces they had sent to Korea wiped out, China sent a much large force in January 1593 under Song Yingchang and Li Rusong. The expeditionary army had a prescribed strength of 100,000, made up of 42,000 from five northern military districts, a contingent of 3000 soldiers proficient in the use of firearms from South China, and far more from Siam and the Ryukyus. Seaports in China were closed for fear that the Wokou invasions of the 1550s would be repreated. In February 1593 a large combined force of Chinese and Korean soldiers attacked Pyongyang and drove the Japanese into southward retreat. Li Rusong personally led a pursuit with a force of 1000 cavalry. He was checked by a large Japanese formation outside Seoul and thoroughly routed.

These engagements ended the first phase of the war, and peace negotiations followed. The Japanese evacuated Seoul in May and retreated to fortifications around Busan. Some Japanese soldiers left the army and settled down in Korea, even marrying Korean women. The ensuing truce was to last for close to four years.
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The interlude

In the summer of 1593 a Chinese delegation visited Japan and stayed at the court of Hideyoshi for more than a month. The Ming government withdrew most of its expeditionary force, but kept 16,000 men on the Korean peninsula to guard the truce. An envoy from Hideyoshi reached Beijing in 1594. Satisfied with Japanese overtures, the imperial court in Beijing dispatched an embassy to invest Hideyoshi with the title of "King of Japan" on condition of complete withdrawal of Japanese forces from Korea. Most of the Japanese army had left Korea by autumn 1596; a small garrison was nevertheless left in Busan. The Ming embassy was granted an audience with Hideyoshi in October 1596 but there was a great deal of misunderstanding about the context of the meeting. Hideyoshi considered himself the victor in the war, and was enraged to find out that he was to be installed as a tribute-bearing vassal. He demand among other things, a royal marriage with the Wanli Emperor's daughter, the delivery of a Korean prince as hostage, and four of Korea's southern provinces. Peace negotiations soon ceased and the war entered its second phase. Early in 1597 both sides resumed hostilities.
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The second invasion

Soon after the Chinese embassy was given safe conduct home, 200 Japanese ships carrying a force of 140,000 were sent to Korea. The court in Beijing appointed Yan Hao as supreme commander of an initial mobilisation of 38,000 troops from as far away as Sichuan, Zhejiang, Huguang, Fujian, and Guangdong. These were assisted by a naval force of 21,000 men. Ray Huang has estimated the combined strength of the Ming army and navy at the height of the second campaign at 75,000 men.

The second invasion differed from the first in that the Japanese met with stronger resistance. They pushed to just south of Seoul in August 1597 but were turned back by a large Korean and Ming force that winter. As the Japanese retreated south through Gyeongsang-do they burned Gyeongju and destroyed and stole much of the historic and artistic legacy of Silla. Thereafter they were on the defensive. Naval operations, already deemed important in the first campaign, had a decisive influence on the outcome of the second. Following the loss of Hansan Island, Yi Sun-sin, who had been sent to jail, was reinstated. With his return the Koreans soon regained control over the waters of the straits, forcing the Japanese to land men to take defensive positions along the coast from Ulsan in the east to Suncheon in the west. On September 16, 1597, Yi led 12 ships against 133 Japanese ships in the Myongnyang Straits. The Koreans sank 31 enemy ships and forced a Japanese retreat. In November, the Japanese fleet was lured by Yi into a tide-race where the oar-driven turtle ships caused wholesale destruction.

By early 1598, the Japanese forces, hemmed in by Korean and Chinese armies, found themselves unable to break out of the south despite fierce fighting. The Wanli Emperor sent a Chinese fleet under artillery expert Chen Lin in May 1598; this naval force saw action in join manouvres with the Koreans. Konishi Yukinage warned that the Japanese position in Korea was untenable. Hideyoshi in turn ordered the withdrawal of close to half of the invading force, leaving mostly Satsuma warriors under Shimazu clan member commanders. The remaining Japanse forces fought fiercely, turning back Chinese attacks on Suncheon and Sacheon. The invasion was suddenly abandoned only when news of Hideyoshi's death on 18 September 1598 reached the Japanese camp late in Ocotber.

The Seven-Year War left deep scars in Korea. Farmlands were devastated, irrigation dikes were destroyed, villages and towns were burned down, the population was first plundered and then dispersed, and tens of thousands of skilled workers (celadon ware makers, craftsmen, artisans, etc) were either killed during the war or kidnapped to Japan as captives to help Japanese develop their crafts. In 1598 alone, the Japanese took some 38,000 ears as horrific trophies. The long war reduced the productive capacity of farmlands from 1,708,000 kyol to 541,000 kyol. Pillage and foraging by Chinese troops only added to the unmitigated tragedy of a war from which the peninsula kingdom never fully recovered.

Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan had been completely suspended. Japan was cut off from the technology of continental Asia. After the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, however, negotiations between the Korean court and the Tokugawa shogunate were carried out via the Japanese lord on Tsushima. In 1604, Tokugawa Ieyasu, needing to restore commercial relations with Korea in order to have access to the technology of the mainland again, met Korea's demands and released some 3000 captive Koreans. As a result, in 1607, a Korean mission visited Edo, and diplomatic and trade relations were restored on a limited basis.


Back to Joseon

As trade continued globally, any assumption of Korea being isolated is an over-statement of the facts. Korea even as the so-called "hermit kingdom" has had extensive exchange with other countries, and extensive trade, however at times this has been extraordinarily limited.

China after the Ming dynasty collapsed falled into a foreign policy where the new Mongolian rulers, the Q'ing Dynasty emperors, decided to avoid the creation of foreign trading enclaves on Chinese soil in favour of keeping the traditional entrepot for the foreign hongs in Macau, which handled the tremendous trade in Chinese silks to Japan bringing in massive amounts of silver in return. The decision being that foreign trade was relegated to the southern provinces, and the northern areas, which historically were the most unstable, were kept safe from the influence of foreigners, and the trade carefully regulated. This decision affected Korea as Korea historically was under the protection of China in the sense of being a "little brother" to the "elder brother" protection of the Emperor: the foreign policy of Korea was to a large extent regulated by China, and so was the foreign trade. It helped strengthen Korea as without Chinese naval forces the huge wealth of Korea in natural resources, relatively sophisticated technology, ceramics innovations, and the key medicinal trade in ginseng would have been lost to Japanese hands much earlier than it eventually was.

More than a century later, in the 17th century, the Manchus defeated the Ming dynasty, and the Korean rulers agreed to pay tribute to the new Q'ing dynasty emperors. The Manchus themselves shared much with Koreans as the Korean language is linked to the Turkic-Mongolian languages, and the language of the educated classes in Korea was continuously classic Chinese til late in the 20th century. Linguistically as well as intellectually, China had a large interrelation with Korea in all the most important levels: a joint foreign policy, joint trade policy, exchange of technologies, shared religions in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and even folkish animism (both Korea and China have historically believed in the world of the "spirits"); and again joined by the extensive ceramic, ginseng, and horse and weapon trade. Infantry weapons of broadswords and iron fittings were provided by Korean iron mines.

By the middle of the 19th century, Japan and China were thrown into a war over the Korean peninsula. Japan had few natural resources, and had constantly encroached into Korean areas in search of fish, iron ore, natural resources, and the key ginseng and medicinal trade, as well as studying intently Korean advances in naval warfare; as well as seeing a need to find further room for an overseas series of imperial colonies. Russia's inability to defend its naval ports, and the collapse of Russia's navy in the historic battle of Port Arthur, in which Japan defeated and indeed destroyed Russia's imperial navy in a decisive surprise attack, led to a great weakening of Korea's umbrella of protection. Japan had advanced strongly enough and determinedly enough to reward its expansionist elements by giving them blanket licences for foreign occupation, leading to continuous and vicious attacks on Korea that were both encouraged and neglected by the west.

England and Europe as a whole, including Germany, had a vested interest in Russia being reigned in; Germans, English and Americans saw that Japan was a rich trade market to be penetrated under a series of forced trade agreements, while China, under the decaying infighting of the late Q'ing emperors and empresses, and the incredible corruption of a series of exchequers and merchants, literally abandoned their naval defences and left the entire north coast undefended after a series of internal thefts of monies for naval construction. Japan saw this as an opportunity to strike hard on the edges of the north Chinese empire as England struck repeatedly to force the reopening of the opium trade in the south (through the HK "hongs", trading houses such as the Jardines, Sassoons, and the like; and in cooperation with the American traders in their Yankee Clippers fast ships). Indeed there were vast fortunes importing opium fueling lassitude, corruption, and intrigue and simultaneously weakening officials and strengthening merchants with foreign ties in south China, and taking out huge sums of the silver reserves China had been paid for the past three centuries for the silk trade.

The symmetry of the opium wars to the south — England forcing trade in Indian and Afghani opium against the Emperor's edicts — and Japanese naval strikes in the north led Korea to be increasingly seen as a strategic foothold into north China, just as Macau and Hong Kong were Portuguese and English trade enclaves into south China.

If China could be broken into two by a matched set of attacks with the collapse of the Shanghai bankers and financiers — who were in the middle — China could be opened to foreign trade once and for all, and permanent trade zones established and dominated by the west and Japan. South China would be hived off to the coastal European powers; central China to the European inland powers; and north China (what eventually became occupied Manchuria) to the Japanese, being taken away from a long history of Russian influence.

That is what did happen towards the end of the 19th century: south China to Hainan Island (and eventually what became Vietnam) became under the military control of Europe; and north China above Shanghai became to be under the military control of Japan. Russia was vanquished to the north; Portugal and Spain were vanquished to the south; and a joint English and American control of south Chinese trade took off to immensely profitable levels. This becoming the era of the famous "clippers" or sailing ships from Boston financiers that led to great fortunes being made in the tea and opium trade, and the importation of huge numbers of Chinese and Korean ceramics into western Europe and America.

After defeating China in 1894-1895 Japan increased its influence on Korea.

*Thus with the rise of Japanese influence on Korea comes the rise of the Daehan Empire.

Korean Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Korean Empire
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Daehan Jeguk
McCune-Reischauer Taehan Cheguk
Hangul 대한 제국
Hanja 大韓帝國

The Korean Empire existed from 1897 to 1910.

Army of Daehan Empire


In 1897, under King Gojong, the name of Korea was changed from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk, making the country an empire and Gojong its first emperor. In East Asia, the status of empire meant independence from China, and in fact the "full and complete" independence of Korea was recognized in 1895. Contrary to its title, the Korean Empire remained weak and the international community did not think it could achieve self-reliance. In 1905 Korea became a protectorate of Japan. In 1907 Japan forced Gojong to abdicate in favour of his son Sunjong, who became Korea's second and last emperor. In 1910 it was annexed by Japan with the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty.

Korean Annexation by Japan

In a complicated series of manoeuvres and counter-manouevres, Japan smashed the Russian fleet at the Battle of Port Arthur in 1905. Both the fleets of China and Russia had given Korea sufficient protection to prevent a direct invasion, but this ambuscade of the Russian fleet gave Japan free reign over north China and Korea was left at the mercy of the greatest Pacific naval power of the time in that area: Japan. This was done in a series of wars that had the implicit and continuing help of both Germany and England in designing Japanese warships, assistance in naval strategy, and also in participating in clearing Russian influence on the north Pacific coast, and isolating the Russian navy into Vladivostok. A naval defeat that became a central factor in the collapse of the Russian navy and culminated in the anarchist movements within the navy that launched the Russian revolution, and the collapse as well of the Russian Imperial monarchy, thus further entrenching after 1917 Japanese power in the region.

Korea thus became a colony, although designated as a protectorate. By forcing Emperor Gojong of Korea to abdicate his throne and assassinating his wife, Queen Min of Joseon, Japan annexed the country entirely as a colony in 1910.

Emperor Gojong's forcible abdication was followed by the assassination of Queen Minh by Japanese mercenaries. The event is recalled both in books and at the historical site itself, Cheong'duk Palace in Seoul, with a monument. Queen Minh's brutal murder — she was stabbed repeatedly, cut into pieces, and her body descrated and thrown into a fish pond — didn't shock the world powers as it should: with the sack and looting of Seoul at the same time and a suppression of journalists and news staff, the events were not known widely for decades. Japanese control of the region had been encouraged by the European powers since 1905's routing of the Russian naval forces, and also as a control on the potential of China to industralize by itself on its own terms.

This ended the legal and continuing rule of the Joseon Dynasty and began a 35 year period of Japanese atrocities, including millions of Koreans subjected to slave labor, forced prostitution, murder, torture, and "Japanization".

Japan at that time practiced genocide and ethnic cleansing on a huge scale, historians now seeing great similarity to what happened amongst Korea at that time with what happened in Cambodia during the Khmyer Rouge genocide or as is increasingly mentioned, the European holocaust of the jewry.

In essence the entire educated classes of Korea, the school teachers, lawyers, doctors, and the scholarly class, the entire reaches of educated society were massacred. The country itself was looted, the cultural artefacts stolen and taken to Japan or exported elsewhere, libraries were burnt and destroyed, schools smashed, and a forcible eradication of the Korean language was taken by Japan in favour of a Japanese only linguistic doctrine. The Korean people who complained or fought were either imprisoned or massacred, and massive flight began from urban centers away into the countryside where a few freedoms still existed. Schools, hospitals, and all cultural institutions were closed, and Japan intended to impress only Japanese values on the entire Korean society as a way of eliminating the Korean heritage within a single generation. Korean tradition and history was almost savaged forever. This included the traditional Korean rulers, the scholarly and artistic classes, and the government as well.

When the Japanese invaded and occupied the Korean Peninsula in 1910, they forcibly reorganized the last reigning dynasty as part of the larger Japanese royal family in attempt to justify their illegal occupation. When King Gojong was forced against his will, illegally, and without due process of law to abdicate the throne, the Japanese moved his son the Crown Prince Sunjong, and some others, such as, Crown Prince Yongchin, to Japan, to separate the Crown Prince from his people, and to attempt to eliminate a great tradition from the Korean people that had existed from the 12th century. With the Korean religions thrown down, with the royal family massacred and its remaining members forcibly removed to a foreign nation, with massive genocide throughout urban centers and the countryside, Korea itself faced terrible times for almost 25 years til the end of World War II when Japan was defeated by the allies in 1945.

After WWII and the Fall of the Japanese Empire

And General MacArthur's staff, who saw Korea as a brave nation which still had survived despite the Japanese atrocities - which were on a larger scale than even seen in occupied China - finally saw the chance in 1945 for Korea to gain a freedom it had not seen for almost five decades of Japanese invasions. This was sadly to be a short respite, as the Korean war soon began, with again the war against Korea again was being run out of Tokyo, where Chinese influence again was being fought against by General MacArthur's headquarters. Once again the fight for control of the Chinese trade entrepots and natural resources of Korea was being fought out of the same geographic areas but for different and varied reasons. The Korean people were caught in the middle once more as the corrupt and inefficient Koumintang (Nationalist) Chinese forces under General Chi'ang Kai Shek and his warlords fell to the advancing peasant army of Mao Zhe Dong and his Chinese Communist Party armies.

The Communist Chinese army victory in 1949 again forced Japan into the real forefront as a means to reduce the influence of China on Korea. MacArthur had, whether he knew it or not, accepted that Japan had to be re-empowered and with its Emperor kept, as a unifying influence, and its immense manufacturing base still relatively preserved, and with a huge series of stockpiles of natural and raw materials that Japan had taken from China and Korea (strategic metals, gold and silver stockpiles, iron ore stockpiles, coal stockpiles) Japan was set to be the new logistic center for the next Korean war. And it became that.

The Chinese Communist victory meant that with the United States the most powerful force in the Pacific, a decision was made to exclude the Korean royal family from future influence. At the same time the traditional Korean church, and the traditional Korean religions were seen as unworkable by the west, and they too were seen as needing to be replaced. An American educated, and American sponsored president was installed in Korea, and what remained of the Korean royal family were evicted from their lands, their palaces, and all remaining articles that were left were confiscated by the state. A series of very dark times came on both Korea and the Korean royal family as they were removed both as the head of the country and the head of the Korean national religions. The Japanization of Korea was replaced the Americanization of Korea.

And to some extent this was inevitable as in the late 1940s and during the Korean war - Korean culture was almost non-existent, and traditions were more or less unworkable in the face of persistent genocides, famines, and the war with the Communist occupiers to the north.

The MacArthur strategy for Korea reinstated the Korean language, Korean control over universities, colleges, and business; Korean passports and slightly more independence in foreign policy and trade developed; however the influence and the power of the Korean royal family was once again negated purposively. The state religion of Korea - Confucianism (ancestor worship), Taoism (abstract philosophy), Buddhism, and animism, were seen as religions to be replaced by an aggressive fundamentalist Christian missionary movement. Missionary schools and hospitals, missionary churches and charities served a function to both define Korea against the Communists to the north, and also to reglue Korean society into a 20th century American vision of progress. That traditions going back 8 centuries were eliminated was seen as inevitable in times of war, and to some extent the Korean people were increasingly taken away from their heritage and the traditions of their rulers.

As an example, American missionary dictionaries simply avoided citing Korean words for "prince", "crown", "royalty", and all published works in Korea simply eliminated references to the Korean royal family. This Americanization of Korea has continued to this day, with studies and references to the imperial past constructively eliminated, and avoided.

Most Koreans who were born after 1945 simply do not know that there is a Korean royal family as the family was simply not mentioned, all new schoolbooks that were printed eliminated references to it, and whatever the reason all schools and institutes of higher learning eliminated any and all references to the Korean royal traditions in favor of Americanization of the culture and the instilling of American democratic values in the Korean mind.

Schools were barred from teaching anything about the Korean royal family or its history, and a process of Americanization of values and theology was begun and reinforced for the past half century, however from the 1990s onwards, there has been a revitalizaton of Korean traditions and interest in traditional Korean history, and a rebuilding of Korean values on Korean terms.

As Korea has once more regained its own footing, and its own independence, it again discovered the glories of the Korean past in times before the occupation of Korea by Japan and its partition.

The history of Imperial Korea itself vanished, and even the Korean royal encyclopaedias and royal histories were stolen and looted at best, or burnt and destroyed. There has still been no inventory of what was held in the libraries, and what was lost, and no known scholarship on the holdings. Some scholars have compared the destruction of the Imperial Korean archives as the equivalent of the burnings of the libraries at Alexandria; and the looting and destruction of the Korean heritage as equivalent to the jewish Holocaust in Europe where an entire heritage of centuries of study, tradition, and humanity was systematically attempted to be erased by foreign forces.

Of the imperial histories, these are only now being recovered and published in small editions and often against the grain: one of the finest sets of Korean royal encyclopaedias is presently in a storage garage in one of the research libraries in Paris, and still has not been copied or reproduced.

Under the present open government of President Roh it is hoped that the rediscovery and re-evaluation of Korean history before Japanese occupation will begin, and scholars will be able to find the essence of what is Korean on Korean terms once the 20th century invasions of Korea are properly seen as events within a larger continuum of Korean history. There are great hopes that finally imperial traditional history can be reintegrated into the Korean school curriculum and the "heart" of Korean society given back to its people.

Most reference works cite that all the primary heirs to the Korean throne were married into the Japanese imperial family. (Such attempts to reduce the nobility of Korean blood could be seen as similar to Napoleon's deliberate marriage of his family into European nobility during his European wars in order for France to continue its powers and legalize the wars after his rule.) This belief that ALL the Korean Royal Family intermarried with Japanese is a partial truth as many of the Korean royal family were able to continue on outside Japanese control - some fleeing abroad both during and after wars and occupations - while those forced into such compulsory marriages lost their Japanese titles by order of General Douglas MacArthur. As well as MacArthur ordered that any Japanese created nobility in Korea lost their Japanese imperial titles as well. MacArthur, however, while eliminating the Korean royals from being future players in the Korean Republic, did not take away their titles, even if their rights and properties were sequestered.

Some elements of the Korean royal family, including the Crown Princes, moved to the United States to raise their families as expatriates within the very dangerous and insecure political climate of the 1950s. Yongchin's son, Lee Ku, studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to become an architect, but has since continued to live solely in Japan, and cannot speak Korean, and has only recently sought the ability to visit Korea and to be able to participate in occasional ceremonies of remembrance. Some relatives of the Joseon Dynasty were encouraged to disperse for their own preservation, and are now American citizens today, living and working in the United States in the private sectors as ordinary citizens in the Pacific west coast. Or are living in other countries abroad again as ordinary citizens with no privileges.
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The Current Crown Prince within the context of the Republic of Korea

The current Crown Prince, His Imperial Highness the Crown Prince Yi, has after a long period of tribulation and patience, in 2004 finally regained his dignity and respect in keeping the Korean royal traditions alive. This has surprised many in Korea who did not know that the traditions and values of the Korean Royal Family have indeed been reborn in the 21st century as a valuable link to both the past and the future of Korea and Koreans as a whole.

Crown Prince Yi, has with great effort worked to preserve the Korean traditions by travelling extensively through Korean and lecturing at schools, reminding the youth of today that indeed there are long lines of greatness in Korea and traditions that are essential to be preserved. He has participated in many public religious services of the national religion, and has played a constant and earnest role in trying to maintain the dignity of his country and his position throughout perhaps the worst times Korea had in its entire history - having suffered both WW2 as a youth, the Korean war as a teen, and also having served in the Vietnam war in action in a notedly aggressive elite Korean commando regiment - "The Tigers" - as an enlisted man. Returning to Korea after the Vietnam war, he found a need to develop a unique role in a society in which he did not exist. A long period of time passed as he learned the new rules of a new society and struggled to accommodate a new world utterly different from the times in which he was born: a long difficult struggle that mirrored the very hard times all Koreans had in rediscovering their own inner dignity and their own national strength.

HIH the Crown Prince Yi is head of the Yi family, and has a website that indicates what his current assumed duties are. HIH the Crown Prince is, as expected, now a private citizen of the Republic of Korea, who simply has a remarkable history, and as an educator, popular television series host, able musician, father, former soldier and war veteran, keeper of the traditions, and historian of his family, sees his duties as a valuable contribution to Korean society. Perhaps few people in the Republic have the ease of manner and the extensive understanding of all aspects of Korean society as he; and few indeed have worked against the odds to maintain Korean traditions going back eight centuries in a way that makes them relevant and important to the next series of generations.

Increasingly he has taken a larger and more high profile role as keeper of those traditions as Korea has become a freer and more open society. And as an examplar of the persistence and strength of the Korean people who have finally triumphed after tremendous times of adversity. His life itself has mirrored in many ways the continued fight for duty and freedom that is uniquely that of the Korean people as a whole in the 20th century in a continued quest for a place in a sophisticated evolving complicated world.

As well HIH the Crown Prince Yi is moving towards establishing a charitable foundation to preserve and continue Korean arts, and towards establishing scholarships in the arts both at home and abroad; and as well in the future to do work with the many Korean orphans at home who he holds dear to his heart, as well as those who have suffered through being homeless. He has concerned himself as well with maintaining essential traditions, and as a host for major historical recreations and events throughout presently the Republic of Korea.

The Korean royal family website is to appear in English in early 2005, and is currently available only in Korean at http://cafe.daum.net/epna.

The life of HIH the Crown Prince Yi was several years back made into a tv program on the Korean Broadcasting System (KBS), and is available on their website but only in Korean as a realplayer or windows media movie. It is a moving and difficult tribute to a man who has fought at great lengths to preserve the honesty of his beliefs, and to preserve a great heritage that was almost lost to the Korean people as a whole while all the time keeping in the public eye and the heart of the people.

Imperial Korean history, art, and architecture are currently represented in a series of museums and architectural sites throughout Korea. There have been no major travelling world shows of Imperial Korean antiquities or works of art as few indeed now remain in Korean hands in Korea. It's a matter of fact that one may see more Korean works of art, and pieces from the Imperial collections in the museums of Japan, than exist in either state or private hands in Korea.

As more archaeological digs begin in Korea, there is hope that discoveries may be made, and purchases may be made in Japan, to bring Korean collections back home and rebegin the rich collective heritage of Korean culture and art once again. As Korea moves towards remembering the richness of its culture and the incredible superiority of its ceramics and architectural histories, this will no doubt occur, but not perhaps for several generations. And in the interim Korea is expected to continue its renaissance in film and art and ceramics to reestablish its world class cultural achievements to a new global audience.

Gyeongbok Palace is a world heritage site, and in Seoul, and the traditional residence among many of the Korean Royal Family. The Gyeonbok Palace and its land and articles are owned entirely by the government of the Republic of Korea, as all other Imperial lands and sites. When HIH the Crown Prince Yi visits his ancestral home and lands he does so now only as a private citizen. But he does so with pride and with concern for maintaining the heritage of these residences for all Koreans and the many foreign visitors each year.
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About references

The Joseon Dynasty recorded its history as Annals of Joseon Dynasty.

There are few if any works available or on the internet on the Korean Royal Family - and journalists are only now seeking a wider interest in this both incredible and fascinating living history. There is presently no official historian of the Korean royal family, and the Imperial records have ceased to be recorded since the Japanese invasions. It is hoped that at some point a series of foundation grants will allow the twentieth century to be once more put within the context of the Imperial histories, and more documents and more artefacts cataloged and indexed for future historians and generations.

Occasional references to t