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Alternative/past Chinese names for foreign cities Please contribute Rate Topic: -----

#1 User is offline   snowybeagle

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 12:44 AM

The recent issue of South Korea's request to China to change the Chinese name for Seoul from Han-Cheng to Sou-Er reminded me that there may be other names in Chinese for other foreign cities or even countries besides its present names.

First that came my mind was San Francisco.
The name I believe is used nowadays is San Fan Shi (三藩市), but before, it was more commonly known as Jiu Jin Shan (旧金山) or literally Old Gold Mountain.

Interestingly though, the Chinese name for Myanmar had always been Mian Dian (缅甸) even when it was known as Burma in the United Nations.

Greece is known as XiLa (希臘), after Hellas I suppose.

The Netherlands is HeLan (荷蘭), Holland, which is technically only two of the seven provinces of the country.

Of course, North Korea and South Korea are known as (Bei)ChaoXian (北朝鲜) or BeiHan (北韓) and Han Guo or NanHan (南韓) respectively, after historical kingdoms(?).

Anyone else know of others?
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#2 User is offline   tianzhuwoye

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 09:41 AM

How about 孟加拉 Mengjiala for 'Bangladesh?' Maybe there's a weird 'm' and 'b' thing going on down on the subcontinent (as during the changes between 'Bombay' and 'Mumbai') but is there a chance that Mengjiala comes from 'Mughal?' How spooky would that be?

Another weird one is 文莱 Wenlai for Brunei Darussalam, but close enough that it's probably just a reflection of changes in the pronunciation of both languages over time (or it might be more 'dialectical' maybe?) as the Sultanate has been around for hundreds and hundreds of years.

A cool one to think about is 俄罗斯 Eluosi or 俄国 Eguo for 'Russia' since it seems to want to scream out the implication that whoever gave it its Chinese name was speaking an "Altaic" language, as the 'inability' to pronounce an 'l/r' sound at the beginning of a word is a supposed characteristic of Altaic languages like Mongolian where 'Russia' today is 'Oros', and Manchu, where only 'foreign' words begin with l/r. One of the reasons the 'Macro-Altaic' theory includes Korean and Japanese in the mix is because they also avoid this. Compare Eluosi to the more recent 罗马尼亚 luoma'niya 'Romania.' Plus historically it makes a lot of sense. Sorry if this turns out to be common knowledge...

The Chinese names for the two Koreas are simply the names each country uses (being different countries and having different governments they have different names- I remember seeing somewhere on this forum where somebody had a problem with this) and you'd probably never hear 北韩 in the PRC. But while we're in the area, does anybody have a definite answer for the derivation of 新罗 'Xinluo' for Silla? Is it just a phonetic transcription of ancient Korean pronunciation, or does it have something to do with cutting down trees? (From the 'Shuowen:'新,取木也') Otherwise, where's Old La?
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#3 User is offline   caocao74

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 09:45 AM

Is it the UK or England only which is called 'Yingguo'?
In Korean, 'Yongguk' refers to both England and the UK (although occasionally you will hear 'En-gul-landu', as in the 2002 World Cup), while in Japanese, the UK is 'Eikoku', with 'Igirisu' covering England the UK again.
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#4 User is offline   tianzhuwoye

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 10:03 AM

wussup caocao74,

At least in the PRC, the name 英国 Yingguo, sadly, is usually used in everyday conversation in basically the same way as the interchangable American terms 'British' and 'English' to mean: "I'm not sure what I'm talking about but it has to do with that island, and sometimes Ireland."

But yeah, 英格兰 Yinggelan is used when you're talking about soccer (...whoops!)
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#5 User is offline   Yun

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 10:06 AM

Quote

Another weird one is 文莱 Wenlai for Brunei Darussalam, but close enough that it's probably just a reflection of changes in the pronunciation of both languages over time (or it might be more 'dialectical' maybe?) as the Sultanate has been around for hundreds and hundreds of years.
In the Fujian dialect, which is widely used in Southeast Asia, Wenlai is pronounced Boonlai. I think that's the reason. In fact, quite a number of Chinese transliterations for country and city names sound more reasonable in Cantonese or Fujian.

Quote

Is it the UK or England only which is called 'Yingguo'?


Yingguo generally refers to the entire UK, and when only England is meant, Yinggelan 英格兰 might be used. For Great Britain, the official transliteration is Da Buliedian 大布列颠.
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#6 User is offline   snowybeagle

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 11:04 AM

tianzhuwoye, on Jan 25 2005, 10:41 PM, said:

How about 孟加拉 Mengjiala for 'Bangladesh?' Maybe there's a weird 'm' and 'b' thing going on down on the subcontinent (as during the changes between 'Bombay' and 'Mumbai') but is there a chance that Mengjiala comes from 'Mughal?' How spooky would that be?


Actually, I think Mengjiala is derived from Bengal.
During the early Muslim period which began with Turkish invasion of the region, a Sultanate of Bangala was founded.

Don't have any info on the 'm' and 'b' business though. I'll ask some colleagues from the subcontinent if they know anything more.
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#7 User is offline   Yun

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 12:37 PM

On the interchangeability of 'm' and 'b': in the Fujian dialect, this is often the case. In Singapore, a frequently-heard slang for Indians is 'Mengali', a variation of 'Bengali'. Same reason why Bangkok is Mangu 曼谷, I guess.
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#8 User is offline   janz

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Posted 25 January 2005 - 01:24 PM

snowybeagle, on Jan 25 2005, 05:44 AM, said:

The recent issue of South Korea's request to China to change the Chinese name for Seoul from Han-Cheng to Sou-Er reminded me that there may be other names in Chinese for other foreign cities or even countries besides its present names.

First that came my mind was San Francisco.
The name I believe is used nowadays is San Fan Shi (三藩市), but before, it was more commonly known as Jiu Jin Shan (旧金山) or literally Old Gold Mountain.

Interestingly though, the Chinese name for Myanmar had always been Mian Dian (缅甸) even when it was known as Burma in the United Nations.

Greece is known as XiLa (希臘), after Hellas I suppose.

The Netherlands is HeLan (荷蘭), Holland, which is technically only two of the seven provinces of the country.

Of course, North Korea and South Korea are known as (Bei)ChaoXian (北朝鲜) or BeiHan (北韓) and Han Guo or NanHan (南韓) respectively, after historical kingdoms(?).

Anyone else know of others?


Jiu Jin Shan(Old Gold Mountain) for San Francisco is the official translation of PRC.
灭六国者, 六国也, 非秦国也。族秦者,秦也,非天下也。

roughtly translated...

the six states destroyed the six states, not qin.
qin ruled qin, not the whole country.
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#9 User is offline   hansioux

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Posted 26 January 2005 - 06:52 PM

Yun, on Jan 25 2005, 09:37 AM, said:

On the interchangeability of 'm' and 'b': in the Fujian dialect, this is often the case. In Singapore, a frequently-heard slang for Indians is 'Mengali', a variation of 'Bengali'. Same reason why Bangkok is Mangu 曼谷, I guess.


That's over simplifying.

曼 still sounds like Man in Holo language.

A lot of the south eastern names has translations dating back to Han, Tang, or Song dynasty. Those are translated in the official languages back then which is similar to Holo language today.

Here is a interesting Taiwanese research on this subject, featuring a lot of such ancient translations:

泰南半島和印尼群島古航線及文化變遷
‧歷史月刊 2004/11/09

最近因為中國為了開發其西南邊疆,有意與日本和泰國合作開發克拉(Kra)運河,此議一出,立即引起各方關注。其實開發克拉運河已非新議題,早在一九六○年代泰國政府即曾倡議,擬邀請日本和美國財團共同開發。

【文/陳鴻瑜(作者為國立政治大學歷史系教授)】

最近因為中國為了開發其西南邊疆,有意與日本和泰國合作開發克拉(Kra)運河,此議一出,立即引起各方關注。其實開發克拉運河已非新議題,早在一九六○年代泰國政府即曾倡議,擬邀請日本和美國財團共同開發,因未獲馬六甲海峽周邊國家的支持以及資金和技術的限制,此計畫歸於夭折。一九八二年,泰國政府重提此議,設立「克拉地峽建設計畫委員會」,該項計畫包括開鑿克拉運河以及泰南區域開發。但後來泰國政府為了與東協的馬國、新加坡維持友好關係,以免因為開發該運河而影響該兩國的經濟,所以又將該計畫束之高閣。後來在一九九○年代,日本亦提出開發克拉運河之議,主因是日本有許多商船、輪船往來於中東國家和日本,如能開鑿該運河,將能使日本船隻不必繞道馬六甲海峽而降低成本,蒙獲利益,後來又因新加坡等國反對以及泰國人民迷信一旦開挖該運河,將使泰國分裂成為兩部分,對泰國國運有影響,故該案最後無疾而終。


在泰國南部馬來半島(本文為行文方便稱泰南半島)上最窄的地點是從尖噴(Chumphon)到安達曼海一帶,約僅八十公里左右。在公元前一世紀以前的未知年代,該地帶人民即透過步行越過該半島,然後乘船而往來於印度和東南亞其他地區,甚至到中國。


泰南半島文明的形成


據目前的研究所知,從中南半島沿岸到泰國南部、馬來半島靠近暹羅灣一帶,約在公元前四、五千年即有民族居住,他們來自何地,無法知道。從考古發現,他們大都屬於穴居,使用石器,例如公元前一千年左右的越南的東山銅鼓文化、泰南的佛統(Nakhon Pathon)、烏通(U-Thong)、猜耶(Chaiya)、西勢洛坤(Nakhon Si Thamarat)等地都發現使用石器的土著民。至公元前一到二世紀,對於這一地帶人類,已可辨別出屬於何種種族,例如越北為越族、越南中部為占族、越南南部到柬埔寨本部為高棉土著族(可能為印度尼西亞種族)、泰國南部從華富里(Lop Buri)到猜耶一帶為蒙族(Mon)、從佛統到緬甸南部也是蒙族、從猜耶到馬來半島為沙蓋族(Sakai)、西蠻族(Semang)、西諾伊族(Senoi)、耶昆(Jakun),泰族則分布在湄南河河谷。這些族群進化程度不一,有些已發展出更為近代的文化,例如蒙族和高棉族,但有些卻仍然停留在森林地帶或者依然過著狩獵生活,例如沙蓋族、西蠻族、西諾伊族,他們屬於小黑人族群。


上述諸族群因為與外來族群共居、衝突和融合而形成新的族群。例如中國秦朝在公元前二一四年入侵越北,越族往南發展,侵逼占族的居住地。泰族從泰北沿著湄南河南下,占領蒙族土地,並逐漸與蒙族融合。泰南半島上的最重要的外來族群是印度人。印度人是在哪一個年代移入泰南半島,並無確實的文獻可稽。而印度人向東發展,並沒有在佛統一帶建立據點(因為佛統一帶是蒙族和泰族混居的地區),而是在更東邊的扶南(今柬H寨),根據中國文獻《梁書》的記載,來自印度的婆羅門(Brahmin)的混填與扶南女王柳葉通婚,「生子分王七邑」而成為扶南國。柬埔寨的歷史也說其祖先Preah Thong係來自印度,搭船航行至柬埔寨,與當地公主結婚,繁衍後代。從而可知,約在公元第一世紀左右柬埔寨的土著與印度人(包括商人、傳教士和旅客)混血而形成以後的高棉族。


據布里格斯(Lawrence Palmer Briggs)的著作,扶南的范錫曼(Fan Shih-man)是在公元二○五至二二五年統治扶南,他征服高吧(Takaba或Takala)和盤盤一帶,將該地置於扶南的附庸地位。高吧和盤盤都位在泰南半島。泰國學者黎道綱認為盤盤在今泰國南部的蘇叻他尼(Surat Thani)。


當時的高吧和盤盤是旅客和商人從印度過來轉往扶南的重要港口,很多印度人在此兩港口定居,他們因與扶南有血統關係,所以扶南文化在該地區發揚傳播,而與該地北方的蒙族控制區──佛統──形成不同的文化風貌。


至第四世紀時,《梁書》又記載同樣的故事,即有印度婆羅門從印度到盤盤,再從盤盤到扶南,被迎立為王。


從上述兩則故事中可以知道,大概在公元第一世紀到第四世紀期間印度人就相繼來到柬埔寨,他們是如何從印度到達柬埔寨的?文獻並沒有詳細的記載。不過,從印度婆羅門先抵達盤盤,可以判斷他是先搭船到泰南半島西海岸,再步行越過半島,然後再乘船至扶南。


有關此一路線,可從《漢書》〈地理志〉見到端倪,該書說在公元前一世紀漢武帝時,曾派遣使節前往諶離國、夫甘都魯國、黃支國和已程不國。這些國家都位在泰南馬來半島上。印度人乘船從恆河口往東航行,沿著緬甸海岸航行,經過馬達班(Martaban)、土瓦(Tavoy)、墨吉(Mergui)、高吧、吉打(Kedah)等地,因為商人、旅客和傳教士往來,而使這些地點發展成為港口城市。在公元前第一世紀以前,印度人從高吧越過泰南半島抵達東岸的蘇叻他尼。


在經過一段時間後,蘇叻他尼也發展成一個港口城市,該地的人民乘船往南邊和北邊發展,而以往北航行較具商業價值,因為該條航線可以往泰國南部、柬埔寨等地,甚至遠到中國做生意。往南邊發展的,就形成單馬令,現在叫西勢洛坤。甚至更遠到爪哇和蘇門答臘。


除了該一條路線外,在公元後大秦人(按指東羅馬人)則是從南印度航行到緬甸南部的卑謬(Prome)、庇古(Pegu)、馬達班、坦那沙林(Tenasserim)越過泰南半島抵達暹羅灣的巴蜀(Prachuap Khirikhan)。在公元第一世紀初葉,下緬甸的卑謬是驃國的首府,當時是位在伊洛瓦底江的下游,距離海口只有數英里,因為還未形成像現在的三角洲。因此從印度過來的船隻,會停靠在卑謬,然後南下到坦那

沙林。公元一三一年,羅馬帝國人即乘船沿印度海岸抵達坦那沙林,然後從該地越過泰南半島,到暹羅灣,繼續前往中國。公元一六六年,另一個羅馬帝國商人亦走同樣的路線到中國。布里格斯亦認為羅馬人走上述路線在一六六年到中國。


印度學者密沙普(Patit Paban Mishap)亦認為除了從高吧到猜耶的陸路路線外,尚有一條係從土瓦(Tavoy)越過三佛塔通道(the Three Pagodas Pass),然後經由坎布里河(Kanburi River)到湄南河(Menam)谷地。


在第二世紀,羅馬人、波斯人和印度人可能亦是循上述諸路線前往中國。《後漢書》曾記載:「天竺國,西與大秦通,有大秦珍物,又有細布、諸香、石蜜、胡椒、薑、黑鹽。東漢和帝時(公元八九~一○五年),數遣使貢獻。後西域反叛,乃絕。至桓帝延熹二年(一五九年)、四年,頻從日南徼外來獻。」《後漢書》〈大秦傳〉說:「大秦國,……與安息、天竺交市于海中,利有十倍,……其王常欲通使于漢,而安息欲以漢繒綵與之交市,故遮閡不得自達。至桓帝延熹九年(公元一六六年)大秦王安敦(Marcus Aurelius Antonius)遣使自日南徼外獻象牙、犀角、玳瑁,始乃一通焉。其所表貢,並無珍異,疑傳者過焉。」


從公元前第一世紀到公元後第三世紀上半葉,泰南半島的東西交通路線是越過泰南半島,位在該半島東西兩岸的先後形成的重要城市有西岸的馬達班、毛淡棉、土瓦、墨吉、坦那沙林、高吧、吉打,東岸的蘇叻他尼、西勢洛坤、巴蜀、佛統等城市的出現。這些港口城市都是位在泰南半島的中部,在泰南半島南部、西南部和東南部則尚未出現城市,顯示人口係從兩個方向移動的,一是從蘇叻他尼或西勢洛坤、宋卡、北大年等往南部海岸地帶移動;另一是從高吧、吉打往南邊移動到達馬來半島的南端。


泰南半島的人民,至何時才知道他們所居住的地方是一個半島?這是一個有趣且重要的問題,因為知道泰南是一個半島,就可以繞過半島重新找出新航路。


何時知道繞越馬來半島的航線?


馬來半島既然有國家雛形出現,當地人若繼續航行到蘇門答臘,並非不可能。故引起注意的問題是蘇門答臘何時出現國家?在《後漢書》曾記載在東漢順帝永建六年(一三一年)十二月,「日南徼外葉調國」遣使到中國。法國學者伯希和(Pelliot)認為葉調如古爪哇語Yawadwipa,也類似梵語的Yavadvipa,故葉調應在爪哇。不過,蘇繼卿認為葉調(Yavadvipa)位在蘇門答臘東部。印度學者B. R. Chatterji認為葉調即是東晉時期法顯所經過的耶婆提。葉調國的出現,與托勒密在公元一五○年撰書的時間很近,托勒密應該從旅人或商人知道葉調國這個國家。


在印尼史的著作中,都認為居於統治地位的印尼人係來自印度,葉調國能形成一個國家並遣使到中國,應該有一段時間。其在中國古籍中出現的時間較泰南半島的國家為晚,果如是,葉調國的人民難道是從泰南半島航行而移去的嗎?還是它本身為原生土著部落?抑或與印度人通婚混血而形成的一個新國家?由於中國古籍對於葉調國語焉不詳,無從判斷它的屬性。筆者在後面會討論耶婆提的位置,如果葉調即是耶婆提,則它應位在西爪哇的萬丹(Banten)。


葉調國的使節是如何航行到中國的?在中國古籍中並沒有提及。不過,以當時的船隻性能以及已知的航行路線,很可能是沿襲以前漢朝時的路線,貼著海岸航行。因此,葉調國的使節可能是從西爪哇出發後,沿著馬來半島南端、東岸,北上至北大年、西勢洛坤、蘇叻他尼、猜耶、泰國海岸、扶南、林邑、越南,最後到中國。


如果上述推測可靠的話,則當時的船員應該也知道可以從高吧、吉打經過馬六甲海峽到葉調國。換言之,在公元一三一年時,蘇門答臘和馬來半島的人應已知道繞過馬來半島的航線。另一個重要的發展是人口的移動,從爪哇地區的印尼人(或稱為馬來人)開始移動到馬來半島東海岸,可以從他們今天分布的情況,瞭解這種人口移動的方向,亦即越往馬來半島北部馬來人人數越少,其與泰人交會的地點在北大年、宋卡一帶,在西勢洛坤和蘇叻他尼也有少數的馬來人。從此可以看出來,在馬來半島東岸的馬來人是從爪哇島或蘇門答臘島移去的。


何時越過孟加拉灣?


希臘航海家Hippalus在公元第一世紀發現季節風後,改變了航行的技術,船隻可以更迅速的利用風向和風力航行越過更寬廣的海洋,不必再像以前一樣沿岸航行。密沙普說:「受到Hippalus發現季節風的影響,羅馬船隻才能直接越過印度洋到印度西海岸。在印度東海岸的Palura港才扮演重要的角色。從Arikamedu來的船隻,越過孟加拉灣,進入伊洛瓦底江三角洲,刺激印度商人沿著馬來半島航行,尋求新貨物。」密沙普的說法點出了南印度人利用季節風航行到緬甸南部,再前往馬來半島,而不是直接從南印度越過安達曼灣到達馬來半島。最主要的原因很可能是當時的船隻還不能離開海岸太遠,仍須貼著海岸線航行,而季節風只可能使得船行速度加快。


古埃及亞力山大王(Alexandria)時期的希臘地理學家托勒密(Klaudios Ptolemy)在公元一五○年的著作《地理導覽》 (Guide to Geographia)中曾提及爪哇,他稱之為Iabadij,梵文為Yavadvipa,即是耶婆提,意為產粟米之島。又指出馬來半島西側的Tacola是一個大港口和商業城市。這應該是西方人首先知道有馬來半島。G. E. Gerini認為Tacola位在現在的高吧(Takua Pa)。


托勒密的書記載了印尼群島,包括耶婆提島、沙巴迪巴 (Sabadibar)(即蘇門答臘)、巽他(Sinda)和巴魯斯(Barussae)等島。根據路士西里(Girollamo Ruscelli)於一五六一年重新繪製及修改的托勒密地圖,將這些島畫在今天印尼群島的位置上,但地點有錯誤,例如巽他島的位置在巴魯斯的南邊。而且將沙巴迪巴、巽他和巴魯斯分為三個小島群,也是錯誤。這種錯誤,到底是出於後來繪製地圖的人,還是原書記載的錯誤,無從知道。無論如何,顯然在托勒密之前已有人知道有馬來半島和其他島嶼存在,他才能根據有關的書籍和旅客商人的情報,繪出該半島及附近的地形。


儘管季節風的發現,以及船隻性能的改進,不過,直至第三和第四世紀,可能大部分的船隻還是沿岸航行。至於船隻何時能越過暹羅灣以南的南海、從蘇門答臘到南印度的安達曼海,要到第五世紀時才有較為詳細的記載。


法顯時代的航海突破


法顯是東晉時代的和尚,受到當時陸上絲路從印度傳來的佛教的影響,他也跟隨前人的腳步,在公元三九九年三月從長安出發前往印度求法,在印度居住十年後,他順著恆河往東航行,然後從恆河口往南航行到師子國,即今斯里蘭卡。在四一一年八月從師子國啟程返國。足見當時已有航線從師子國航行到耶婆提,惟不知始於何時。他把這一段行程記載在《佛國記》一書中。該書說:


晉安帝義熙九年(四一三年)九月,從師子國東行返回中國,……即載商人大船,上可有二百餘人,後係一小船,海行艱險,以備大船毀壞。得好信風,東下二日,便值大風……如是大風晝夜十三日,到一島邊,潮退後,見船漏處即補塞之。於是復前,……如是九十日許,乃到一國,名耶婆提。其國外道婆羅門興盛,佛門不足言。停此國五月日,復隨他商人,大船上亦二百許人,齎五十日糧,以四月十六日發。法顯於船上安居。東北行,趣廣州。


據《佛國記》的記載,法顯從斯里蘭卡出發後十五天,抵達一個小島,然後再航行九十天抵達耶婆提。關於耶婆提的位置,有不同的看法,而以位在爪哇的可能性最大。


其次,從語音來看,耶婆提與稍晚在宋文帝元嘉十二年(四三五年)秋七月辛酉,遣使到中國的闍婆娑達國、闍婆國、闍婆鈔達、闍婆達國是否為同地而異譯?這四個國家分別由不同的書記載同一年同一件事。清朝張廷玉撰的《明史》即說:「闍婆,古曰闍婆達,宋元嘉時,始朝中國。唐曰訶陵,又曰社婆,其王居闍婆城。宋曰闍婆,皆入貢。」此後以闍婆為國名載諸史籍者較多。筆者據此僅能假定這四國是同一國家,也是耶婆提同音異譯。


第三,孟加拉灣的季節風,從四月到十月吹西南風,十月到隔年四月吹東北風。法顯是在九月出發,如《佛國記》中說的是順著信風,他可能在十一月中旬抵達耶婆提,在耶婆提停了五個月,再於隔年四月十六日啟程返中國。他先抵達的小島,可能是尼可巴群島(Nicobar)。以後的九十天的航程,取何路線,並不清楚。但可以肯定的,從尼可巴群島到蘇門答臘島不須航行九十天。因此,他所航行的路線一定超過蘇門答臘。


他從尼可巴群島往東航行,有三條航線,一條是經過馬六甲海峽,再分為兩條航線,一條是繞經馬來半島南端,往北沿著海岸航行;另一條是直接越過蘇門答臘到達爪哇。第三條是經過蘇門答臘西海岸的印度洋航行。


首先,如果法顯是經過馬六甲海峽,則可能如泰國學者拉加尼(Mom Chao Chand Chirayu Rajani)所說的是航抵泰南的猜耶。他認為從法顯搭的船被風吹到赤道以南,經過巽他海峽(Sunda Straits)到達爪哇,這是不可能的,因為進入赤道以南的無風帶,船隻無法航行到中國。因此,耶婆提可能位在馬來半島東海岸,才能利用季節風航向中國。加拉尼之所以做此論點,主要的理論出發點是他極力主張泰南的猜耶是當時馬來群島的文化中心。他甚至認為在第七世紀興起的室利佛逝國是位在猜耶,而非在蘇門答臘的舊港。


第二條航線是經過馬六甲海峽,越過蘇門答臘,繼續往東航行到爪哇島,由於會經過赤道無風帶,所以航速減緩,另外就是遇上暴風雨或天氣變壞,以至於花了九十天才抵達港口城市耶婆提,又稱為闍婆達的地方。闍婆(闍婆達)在何地?在第五世紀的爪哇港口中,以對外聯繫和貿易的便利性而論,還是以萬丹港口為耶婆提所在地的可能性最大。而萬丹是呵羅單國王都所在地。「宋文帝元嘉七年(四三○年),呵羅單國治闍婆洲。」呵羅單國可能發源於今天的雅加達,後來控制萬丹及西爪哇地區。


第三條航線是航經蘇門答臘西海岸的印度洋,同樣會經過赤道無風帶,以至於使得船行速度減緩,同樣可能是遇上暴風雨或天氣變壞,花了九十天繞經蘇門答臘島南端後,進入巽他海峽,停靠在該海峽出爪哇海右岸的港口萬丹港。


第四,法顯假如是從萬丹港返回廣州,而且知道從萬丹到廣州的航程須「齎五十日糧」,足見當時已有定期航線,知道此一航程須準備多少糧食。而該一航線是走過去馬來半島東岸的沿岸航線呢?抑或是直接從萬丹越過南海,經林邑、交阯外海到廣州?我們可以從他說:「東北行,趣廣州。」以及後來船隻航行都沒有靠岸的記載來判斷,可能是直接越過南海。


第五,《佛國記》的記載也透露出西爪哇地區宗教文化變動的情形。法顯在《佛國記》中說:「耶婆提。其國外道婆羅門興盛,佛門不足言。」法顯說耶婆提「其國外道婆羅門興盛」,指的是法顯本人信仰的是「正道」的佛教,因此他稱婆羅門教為「外道」。換言之,當時萬丹流行的是婆羅門教。


根據《宋書》的說法:「宋文帝元嘉七年(四三○年),呵羅單國治闍婆洲。」意即在四三○年闍婆達變成呵羅單的屬國,而呵羅單為佛教國家。「宋文帝元嘉十年(四三三年),呵羅單國王毗沙跋摩奉表曰,常勝天子陛下,諸佛世尊常樂安穩,三達六通為世間導,是名如來,是故至誠,五體敬禮。其後為子所篡奪。」


至「宋文帝元嘉十二年(四三五年),闍婆達國國王師黎婆達阿陀羅跋摩遣使奉表曰:『宋國大主大吉,天子足下教化一切,種智安穩,天人師降伏四魔,成等正覺,轉尊法輪,度脫眾生,我雖在遠,亦霑靈潤。』」這是闍婆達國最後一次遣使中國的記載,以後很可能完全被呵羅單滅國,而該國在被呵羅單統治後,也跟著改信佛教。


第六,法顯從師子國航行到耶婆提,在耶婆提等待信風,而且知道從耶婆提航行到廣州,須費五十天時間,最重要的,有二百多位商人搭乘,這樣的航行,不可能是臨時安排的,而很有可能是當時固定的航線。此可以從《南史》的記載找出蛛絲馬跡。「宋文帝元嘉七年,呵羅單、林邑、呵羅他、師子等國並遣使朝貢。」表面看起來這四個國家同時遣使朝貢,沒有什麼特別之處,在過去亦有海外國家同時遣使朝貢的記載。但仔細思考這四國為何會同時遣使朝貢?以這四國分別散在不同地理區域,而當時交通不便,在沒有良好通信設施的情況下,這四國聯絡同時遣使,幾乎是不可能的事。因此,最大的可能是這四國剛好位在同一航線上,即船隻從師子國出發,繼之航抵呵羅他、呵羅單和林邑,這些國家的使節即搭乘同一艘船聯袂到中國朝貢。


無論如何,法顯的航程記錄,對當時的航海事業做出了極為重要的貢獻,也讓世人知道在第五世紀時,人類已可以從南印度越過安達曼海以及從西爪哇越過南海航行到中國。


隋朝遣使到泰南


隋文帝仁壽末年,即在六○四年授劉方為驩州道(今義安)行軍總管,以尚書右丞李綱為司馬,經略林邑。煬帝大業元年(六○五年),毀林邑城擄掠而歸。漢武帝在征伐日南後隨即遣使到泰南,隋煬帝的作法也是一樣,在侵伐林邑後,接著遣使到泰南。根據《隋書》的記載:


隋煬帝大業三年十月,屯田主事常駿、虞部主事王君政等請使赤土,帝大悅,遣齎物五千段以賜赤土王。其年十月,駿等自南海郡乘舟,晝夜二旬,每日遇便風,至焦石山而過,東南詣陵伽拔多洲,西與林邑相對,上神祠焉。又南行至師子石。自茲島嶼連接。又行二三日,西望見狼牙須國之山,於是南經雞籠島。至於赤土之界,其王遣婆羅門鳩摩羅以舶三十艘來迎,吹蠡擊鼓,以樂隋使,以纜駿船,月餘至其都。王遣其子那邪迦請與駿等禮見。


根據前文的一句話「西與林邑相對」研判,陵伽拔多洲可能是越南中部廣義外海的廣東群島(Cu Lao Re),又稱外羅山,該地為船隻沿越南海岸航行必經之地。李金明認為師子石是新加坡,這是不正確的。因為後面有一句話「西望狼牙須國之山」,而「狼牙須國」,即「狼牙修國」,位在泰國南部宋卡、北大年到馬來西亞北部的吉打之間,所以船隻航行不可能已抵達新加坡。因此,師子石應該是

位在暹羅灣靠近泰國南部克拉地峽東南方的斗島(龜島)。「自茲島嶼連接」,可能是指接著在南方的攀根島、蘇梅島、安通島等島群。從海上往西可以看見「狼牙須國之山」,應是指那坤是貪瑪力山脈(Nakhon Si Thamarat)的廊班芝山(Kh. Hnoung Benche)以及南邊的鑾山(Kh. Luang),前者高一九七五公尺,後者高一七八一公尺,因此很容易從海上看到它。雞籠島,應是位在廊班芝山和鑾山外海的島嶼。


常駿的船隊進入赤土的國界,就有赤土國王遣三十艘船歡迎,足見常駿抵達的地點可能是一個港口,此一港口可能是今天泰國南部的宋卡或北大年。而以北大年的可能性較大,因為根據《北史》的記載:「赤土國,……土色多赤,因以為號。東婆羅剌國,西婆羅娑國,南訶羅旦國,北拒大海。」以地理方位來看,北大年北方面海,而宋卡係東北方面海。


根據《梁書》的記載,「狼牙修國,在南海中,其界東西三十日行,南北二十日行。」因此,常駿應是從北大年步行了三十多天到達吉打。泰國出版的著作亦認為古代從北大年到吉打有一條古道。


換言之,直至第七世紀,泰南半島尚有兩條路線可以越過半島,一條是從蘇叻他尼到高吧,另一條是從北大年到吉打。這些城市除了成為商業中心外,亦成為文化傳播中心,主要的宗教文化是深受印度影響的婆羅門教和佛教。


此外,在隋朝,泰南和印尼群島一帶也陸續出現一些新國家,例如丹丹國、多羅磨國。丹丹國即馬來半島東岸的吉蘭丹。多羅磨(Tarum
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#10 User is offline   Yun

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Posted 26 January 2005 - 08:51 PM

A very interesting article on a topic that has been one of my areas of research in the past - ancient Chinese maritime contacts with Southeast Asia. However, the last paragraph seems to be incomplete.

This article identifies the land of Chi'tu (red earth) as being in southern Thailand, but the issue has been very controversial. It has been alternatively identified as Sumatra or Java in the past. This is important because the voyage of the Sui envoy Chang Jun to Chi'tu may represent the first indication of long-distance voyages by Chinese ships, as opposed to Yue, Malay or Indian ships carrying Chinese passengers like the monk Faxian.
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Posted 26 January 2005 - 09:36 PM

One thing I would like to ask is why the inconsistency in translating names of places with the prefix "new"?

For New York, it is called Niu Yue (纽约).
For Newfoundland, it is called Niu Fen Lan (纽芬兰).

But New Delhi is Xin De Li (新德里),
New Jersey is Xin Ze Xi (新泽西),
New Mexico is Xin Mo Xi Ge (新墨西哥), and
New South Wales is Xin Nan Wei Er Si (新南威尔斯) and etc.

This post has been edited by Yun: 26 January 2005 - 11:44 PM

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#12 User is offline   tianzhuwoye

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Posted 26 January 2005 - 11:19 PM

Yeah I was thinking about the 'New' thing too (纽罗? :D ) But it appears that recently translating 'New' (from English- what's 'New Delhi' in Hindi?) for its meaning has taken over from transliterating the sound for 'new' /nu:/ or /nju:/ as a phoneme. That appears to be the norm by now. And the thing about 'Newfoundland' 纽芬兰 is that it carries the stress on the 'New' as opposed to most of the other examples, so it's, phonetically at least, a marked exception. Note that the connection to Finland 芬兰 Fenlan is coincidence, although the pronunciations are also remarkably similar in English as well (but not Finnish).

The points raised by Yun about the m/b shift in the languages of Fujian are absolutely fascinating for their possible implications about the development of 'Chinese' pronunciation and I'd love to see where this goes. 'Bengal' apparently showed up as a term in like the 6th century so its Chinese name probably goes back to the Sui/Tang state or maybe even a little earlier. Thing is, in most other languages I have access to, there are separate terms for 'Bengal' and the exceedingly more modern 'Bangladesh.' Has what's read today as 'Mengjiala' been used consistently throughout the maniacal history of that area? Wondering what the story is there....

I wanted to ask how common 大布列颠 Dabuliedian is outside of the PRC. I'd never use it and asking around, the unanimous response has been 'isn't that Yingguo?'

Anyway, thanks for starting this very cool post!
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#13 User is offline   Yun

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Posted 26 January 2005 - 11:47 PM

On the 'niu'/'xin' issue, has anyone noticed that while New Zealand is called Niu Xilan 纽西兰 in Singapore, it is called Xin Xilan 新西兰 in China?

I've also heard Sydney (Xini) being called by a different name by Taiwanese - something like 'Xueli'.
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#14 User is offline   hansioux

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Posted 02 February 2005 - 04:04 PM

Yun, on Jan 26 2005, 08:47 PM, said:

On the 'niu'/'xin' issue, has anyone noticed that while New Zealand is called Niu Xilan 纽西兰 in Singapore, it is called Xin Xilan 新西兰 in China?

I've also heard Sydney (Xini) being called by a different name by Taiwanese - something like 'Xueli'.
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紐西蘭 and 雪梨?

another example of the new thing is 新幾內亞.
Begging plea of the weak can only receive disrespect, violence and oppression as bestowments. Blood and sweat of the weak can only receive insult, blame and abuse as rewards.

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#15 User is offline   Kulong

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Posted 02 February 2005 - 04:36 PM

Regarding the Niu/Xin issue, the names with Niu are older and were first translated into Cantonese. 紐約 Niuyue in Cantonese sounds closer to New York, just as all older foreign names such as 芝加哥 Zhijiage for Chicago and 華盛頓 Huashengdun for Washington.

All the names with Xin are newer and are most likely translated by the PRC.

As for 紐西蘭 and 新西蘭, the former is the older name used outside of PRC while the latter is the newer name used in PRC.
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