[Daniel]

The other day I asked my father-in-law, who tends to be pretty well-informed about Xinjiang, when the Uighur people became predominantly Muslim. I received this astonishing answer: "2,000 years ago!"

Now I am about as certain as I can be that my father-in-law is wrong, because I am over 99% sure that the Prophet Muhammed wasn't even born until a little over 1,400 years ago. So I would like to know, when did the bulk of the Uighurs really convert to Islam? Also, is my father-in-law's belief that the Uighurs have been Muslim for 2,000 years a common misconception amongst the Uighur people? And what religion(s) did the Uighurs practice before they became Muslim?

[Yun]

The Uyhgurs were shamanists or Buddhists until around 762, when their Kaghan converted to Manichaeanism and made it their state religion. In 840 they were defeated by the Kirghiz and fled out of Mongolia into Gansu and the Tarim Basin (hence their presence in Xinjiang today). There, they switched back to Buddhism. From the 10th century onwards, they were gradually converted to Islam by the influence of the Kharakhanid state to the west. So Xinjiang Uyghurs have been Muslims for about 1,000 years.

[Karakhan]

To add to what Yun said, quite a number were also Nestorian Christians around the 11th, 12th century too. The Yugurs (Yellow Uighurs) are still Buddhist.

[Yun]

Daniel, you're in luck. I found a whole article about "The Buddhist Culture of the Old Uighur Peoples", available here: http://www.shin-ibs....wj3-4/09KD4.pdf

[Wú Fēi]

For my knowledge, Islam was brought into Xinjiang area in about middle period of 10th century. At that time Xinijang was under the reign of 喀喇汗 (Ka La Han, I don't know the English version of this reign), which was set up by the ancient Uigurs (回鹘) as a regional regime. Probably during 893-910, one of the royal members of Ka La Han, 萨世克·布格拉 (Sa Shi Ke · Bu Ge La) Khan, became as the first Uigur Muslim for meeting his need in the political competition. He was also the first man who promoted Islam's spread in Xinjiang. In the beginning, the new religion was resisted by the local Buddhists; after several battles, it came a little far into the west and south part of Xinjiang, in about the early period of 11th century. From then on, Islam appeared as religion just in several places about 喀什 (Kashgar), 莎车 (Sha Che) and 于阗 (Yu Tian) for tatal 200 years, till the early time of 13th century. In Yuan Dynasty, Islam was developed rapidly in Xinjiang because of the tolerant policies by Mongolian conquerors, as Genghis khan and his descendants. In about 1346, 秃黑鲁帖木尔 (Tu Hei Lu Tie Mu Er) took the throne of 察合台 (Cha He Tai) Khan, and began to spare no effort to blazon forth Islam. He was the first Muslim Khan among Mongols in Xinjiang. In about 1392, His successor, 黑地儿火者 (Hei Di Er Huo Zhe) captured places of 吐鲁番 (Tu Lu Fan) and so on, and forced denizens there changed their belief into Islam. By then, Islam was still not the only religion for all Uigurs. Later in the last period of 15th century and the early time of 16th century, Islam was finally accepted by the Uigurs in Hami (哈密) area; that made it became advantaged to be the Uigurs' religion.

[Yun]

Quote

喀喇汗 (Ka La Han, I don't know the English version of this reign

That's the Karakhanid state that I mentioned earlier - the first Muslim kingdom in Central Asia.

[hansioux]

At one point there were two Uyghur states, one buddhist and one muslim at war for 10 years, until the buddhist capital was sacked.

There is this one buddhist nation in the Russian Union. I have been curious for a long time about how it got there.

[Karakhan]

hansioux, on Feb 4 2005, 07:28 PM, said:

At one point there were two Uyghur states, one buddhist and one muslim at war for 10 years, until the buddhist capital was sacked.

There is this one buddhist nation in the Russian Union.  I have been curious for a long time about how it got there.

In Russia? There is Kalmykia and Buryatia, both is Mongol. Buryatia is right above Mongolia, and Kalmykia is by the Caucasus, near Dagestan and Chechnya. If you are wondering about the Kalmyks, they got there due to the large campaign by Western Mongols (aka Oirots/Jungars, etc). When the Qing began fighting with the Jungars in N.Xinjiang (their traditional homeland) those in the Caucasus attempted to migrate back, but were effectively halted by the Kazakhs who were in collaboration with the Qing.

[Wú Fēi]

I consider the nation hansioux mentioned is "Tuva Republic".
See in
http://www.qingis.com/tuva.htm

[Yun]

Another big find: an online e-book on "The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire" (by Alexander Berzin, 1996). Extremely detailed and includes the conversions of the Kharakanids and the Uyghurs.

http://www.berzinarchives.com/e-books/hist...cultures_c.html

[Wú Fēi]

Thanks Yun, really good page.

[Daniel]

An astounding tale. Thanks very much to you all, and especially to Yun for that Berzin book. I am going to have to peruse that at long leisure; I have a great deal of ignorance to remedy. I must admit, I never even heard of Karakhan/Qarakhan until now.

[Daniel]

"In 840, after a particularly severe winter of heavy snowfall had decimated the Uighur herds, the Kyrghyz overthrew the Orkhon [Uighur] Empire in Mongolia, Dzungaria, and the eastern portion of northern West Turkistan." Thus saith Alexander Berzin in his online book The Historical Interaction Between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures Before the Mongol Empire.

But Bai Shouyi in An Outline History of China, p. 213, says that "After the Uygur Khanate was conquered by its subordinate tribe Xiajiasi in 840, the Uygurs moved west to the Tianshan Mountains area and became the ancestors of the Uygur people in present-day Xinjiang."

To confound matters further, a colleague of mine at the university has the Uighurs being driven into Xinjiang by the Khitans!

The one thing everybody seems to agree on was that somebody kicked the Uighurs out of the general area of modern Mongolia around 840, but whodunit? Xiajiasi, Khitans, or Kyrghyz? I'm confused! Help!

[Daniel]

Ceonni, on May 12 2005, 11:00 AM, said:

Xiejiasi is basically the Chinese transliteration for "Kyrgyz", or "Khakas", who I think was a Turkic people then speaking a language close to modern day Tuvinian/Hakas and formed the foundation for the two major Genghis-era Turkic federations: Kerait and Naiman(Naimans were actually more Oghuz). Kereit and Naiman were later incorporated into the Kazakh-Tatars who conquered much of Russia and adopted the Kypchak language, and the later Oyrad federation during the Ming dynasty, who adopted Lamaism as their religion.

Your colleague is wrong. By 840 the Khitans were centered around Beijing, Liaoning and Hulunbuir. A branch of it joined An Lushan.

The Khitans couldn't be the horde that sacked Karabalghasun.

Excellent. That clarifies things greatly. Thank you.

Berzin mentions that "The Kyrghyz then ruled the area from their base in the Altai Mountains until they themselves were displaced by the Khitans (Kitan) in 924." I am guessing my colleague confused this event with the earlier ouster of the Uighurs.

[kaixin]

Ethnic Uygurs in Hunan Live in Harmony with Han Chinese

Seven thousand people from the ethnic Uygur group living in Fengshu Township, in central China's Hunan Province, gathered together Thursday, December 28, inside a local mosque to attend a ceremony marking the Festival of Fast-Breaking.

In China, most ethnic Uygur people live in northwest China's injiang Uygur Autonomous Region. But, this small group of ethnic ygurs living in this central Chinese land have observed the traditions and folkways unique to people of ethnic Uygur background for 600 years.

The fast-breaking festival is an important event for Moslems. Like most Moslems living in Xinjiang and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the Moslems scattered in Fengshu Township also held various kinds of religious functions to celebrate the festival Thursday. Many people representing Han Chinese and other ethnic groups also attended the Moslems' religious activities. Moslem workers are given a one-day official holiday for the fast-breaking festival.

Situated by the Yuanshui River, a tributary of Dongting Lake, Fengshu Township is famous for a number of master pieces in classical Chinese literature, including "Li Sao" by Poet Qu Yuan, and "Peach-Blossom Springs", a poem by Tao Yuanming with a foreword which is an influential piece of writing that tells of an ancient Utopia.

Right among the densely distributed Han Chinese villages, the descendants of the largest group of Uygur Moslems outside Xinjiang have lived and prospered for tens of hundreds of years.

After the religious gathering, several imams came to the slaughter shelters to slaughter cattle and sheep to celebrate the festival.

Excited little Uygur girls, wearing their best costumes for the festivals, danced merrily to music in the open air ground before the village. Jian Dejiu, a Uygur villager in his 70s, said: "Our religious functions are the same as those activities held to mark the fast-breaking by our Uygur brothers in Xinjiang."

More than 600 years back, Hala Bashi, a Uygur noble, acted under orders from Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, founder of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), to guard Fengshu and was given surname "Jian".

Up to now, this group of Uygurs have lived and prospered for 28 generations, with 10,000 people, who are now scattered in four townships including Fengshu. Uygurs of Xinjiang consider these townships as the first habitats of ethnic Uygur people in areas south of the Yangtze River.

In the areas where most residents are Han Chinese, the green mosques and growing number of restaurants serving Moslem food, let people feel a strong sense of ethnic Uygur culture.

"The government has helped us build several mosques," said Jian Dejiu. In the past 50 years, local governments have sponsored training of over 20 imams, two of whom have made pilgrimages to Mecca in Saudi Arabia.

Although ethnic Uygur people here seldom marry Han Chinese, they can speak Mandarin (Putonghua) in addition to their mother tongue Uygur language.

"Before the founding of New China, we were looked down upon, and there were fights with weapons between ethnic Uygur people and Han Chinese residents every year," recalled Jian Dejiu, "but now we ethnic Uygur people and Han Chinese friends live peacefully together just like people of one family."

Like previous years, more than 100 Han Chinese representatives were invited to attend religious activities hosted by ethnic Uygur people. A Han Chinese guest said they also often invite Uygur brothers to visit their villages. To treat them, Han Chinese hosts have prepared at their homes special bowls and chopsticks for the ethnic Uygur guests.

The younger generation of the ethnic Uygur Jian group, who have lived peacefully with Han Chinese, have developed a feeling quite

different from their parents.

Thirty-one-year-old Jian Yiming, head of Fengshu Township, said "what makes us ethnic Uygur people different from Han Chinese brothers is that the state policies are lopsided toward us Uygur people."

Local governments have encouraged ethnic Uygur residents to expand traditional slaughter and leather processing businesses, and ethnic Uygur residents have therefore led a far better-off life than Han Chinese in the areas.

"We also spread our business skills to Han Chinese brothers, so that we ethnic Uygur people and Han Chinese can become prosperous together," said Jian Yiming, also a graduate of the Central University of Nationality Studies.

Though ethnic Uygur people only account for 20 percent of Fengshu Township's total population, every leader of Fengshu Township has been selected from the ethnic Uygur group since Fengshu became an autonomous township of Uygurs in 1986. This group of ethnic Uygurs have a number of celebrities among them, including Jian Bozan, a well-known Chinese historian.

Jian Ningyi, a prominent Uygur businessman specializing in cattle hide processing, said that since the 1980s Uygur people of Fengshu, who have become prosperous, make trips to Xinjiang each year.

"With the support of the local governments, I and my Uygur brothers of Xinjiang invested more than five million yuan in expanding business to Southeast Asia," said the cattle hide businessman.

A Uygur scholar from Xinjiang who is now working with the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences concluded, after having made in-depth study into the Uygur Jian group people, that Uygur Jian people, who now live in harmony with local Han Chinese, "is an miniature of prosperity of ethnic groups in China."