[astralis]

after the sino-japanese war, the qing military was effectively destroyed. the beiyang fleet had been sunk, the nanyang fleet had barely recovered from the sino-french war of a decade previous. the most modern of the qing armies had been routed in korea and weihaiwei, and much of the remainder were destroyed outside of beijing when the japanese entered china proper.

most western historians write off this period between 1895-1911 as nothing more than the collapse of china, especially after dowager cixi crushed the 100 days of reform. but the dowager did have a few new ideas, among one of them is the little-known western-based modernized "new army."

here's an interesting article to that regard. also, if anyone has pictures of this new army, please share them!! :lol:
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http://www.nationmas...opedia/New-Army

Encyclopedia: New Army

The New Armies (Simplified Chinese: 新军) were the modernized Qing armies trained and equipped according to western standards. The first of new armies was founded in 1895 with German arms.

In December 8 1895, Empress Dowager Cixi appointed Yuan Shikai the commander of 4,000 men that formed the basis of the first New Army. Further expanded to 7,000, this New army became the most formidable of the three army groups stationed near Beijing and proven effective against the Boxers in Shandong province. Yuan showed his loyalty to the Qing's court, nevertheless nothing more than a symbolic gesture, by committing only a detachment to relieve Beijing out of foreign hands.

The New Army was gradually expanded and upgraded in the following years, becoming the only militia that the Qing court could rely on amidst revolutionary upraisings throughout China. Yuan became increasingly disrespectful of the dynasty and only loyal to the party which he benefited from; his defection to Cixi against Guangxu Emperor was a major blow to the Hundred Days Reform.

Successful example of the new army was followed in other provinces. The New Army of Yuan was renamed to Beiyang Army on June 25 1902 after Yuan was officially promoted to the "Minister of Beiyang". By the end of the dynasty in 1911, most provinces had established sizable new armies; however the Yuan's army was still most powerful, comprised of six groups and numbered more than 75,000 men.

Yuan tightly gripped the command of army since its establishment by installing officials only loyal to him; however after his death in 1916, the army groups were quickly fragmented into four major forces of combatting warlords, respective to the locations of garrisons. These army groups and generals played different roles in the politics of China until the establishment of the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War.

# Notable figures of Beiyang Yuan Shikai (袁世凱)
# Xu Shichang (徐世昌)
# Wang Shizhen (王士珍)
# Duan Qirui (段祺瑞)
# Cao Kun (曹錕)
# Feng Guozhang (馮國璋)
# Zhang Xun (張勳), 12 day restoration of Qing dynasty
# Wu Peifu (呉佩孚)
# Zhang Zuolin (張作霖), father of Zhang Xueliang
# Feng Yuxiang (馮玉祥), expelled Puyi from the Forbidden City
# Sun Chuanfang (孫傳芳)
# Zhang Zongchang (張宗昌)
# Qi Xieyuan (齐燮元)
# Lu Yongxiang (盧永祥)
# Xu Shuzheng (徐樹錚)
# Song Zheyuan (宋哲元)
# Qin Dechun (秦徳純)
# Tang Shengzhi (唐生智), defended Nanking in Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)
# Zhang Zhizhong (張治中)

[General_Zhaoyun]

Great info :P

[Liang Jieming]

Beiyang Army
(source: BrainyEncyclopedia)

The Beiyang Army (北洋軍) was a powerful and Western-appearing Chinese military force created by the Qing dynasty government in the late 19th century. It was the centrepiece of a general reconstruction of China's military system. The Beiyang Army played a major role in Chinese politics for at least three decades and arguably right up to 1949. It made the 1911 revolution possible, and by dividing into warlord factions ushered in a period of regional division.

Origins under Li Hongzhang (to 1900)

The Beiyang Army was created from Li Hongzhang's Anhui Army, which first saw action during the Taiping Rebellion. Unlike the traditional Green Standard or Banner forces of the Qing, the Anhui Army was largely a militia army based on personal, rather than institutional, loyalties. The Anhui Army was at first equipped with a mixture of traditional and modern weapons. Its creator, Li Hongzhang, used the customs and tax revenues of the five provinces under his control in the 1880s and 1890s to modernize segments of the Anhui Army, and to build a modern navy (the Beiyang Fleet). It is around this time that the term "Beiyang Army" began to be used to refer to the military forces under his control. The term "Beiyang", meaning literally "Northern Ocean", refers to the customs revenues collected in North China, which were used first to fund the Beiyang Fleet and later the Beiyang Army. Unfortunately, funding wass usually irregular and training by no means systematic.

By the mid-1890s the Beiyang Army was the best regionalist troops China could field. The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) was fought almost entirely by the Beiyang Army, unsupported by the forces of other provinces. In the war the Beiyang Fleet, which included two pre-Dreadnought battleships, was overwhelmed by the well-served quick-firing guns of a lighter Japanese fleet. On land similarly Japan's German-inspired conscript army, led by academy-trained profesional officerss, defeated the Beiyang Army.

Yuan Shikai's ascendancy (1901-1908)

Li Hongzhang died in 1901 and was replaced by Yuan Shikai, who took on Li's appointment as Governor-General of Zhili and as Superintendent of Trade for the Northern Ocean (北洋大臣). Yuan had been given command in 1895 of the brigade-sized New Created Army. Many of his officers later became leading figures of the warlord period. They included Zhang Xun (who attempted to restore the Qing dynasty in 1917), Xu Shichang (President of the Republic of China 1918-22), Cao Kun (President 1922-24 and leader of the Zhili military clique), Duan Qirui ("Prime Minister" during much of 1916-20 and leader of the Anhui military clique) and Feng Guochang (President 1917-18 and founder of the Zhili clique).

Yuan Shikai oversaw the piecemeal reform of Qing military institutions after 1901. He founded the Baoting Military Academy, which allowed him to expand the Beiyang Army. With the creation of the Commision for Army Reorganisation in December 1903, the Beiyang Army became the model on which the military forces of other provinces should be standardized. By 1905 Yuan had increased the Beiyang Army to six divisions. In October he held manoeuvres near Hejian in central Zhili using the newly completed Beijing-Hankou railway. Similar exercises where held the next year with Zhang Zhidong's army in Hubei. It was the unanimous opinion of foreign observers that the Beiyang Army was the largest, best equipped and best trained military force in China at the time.

The Beiyang Army under Manchu control (1909-1910)

The Empress Dowager Cixi died on 15 November 1908 and was succeeded by the three year old Puyi. The new regent, Prince Chun, had Yuan Shikai dismissed the next year. Yuan bided his time in retirement, carefully maintaining his network of personal contacts in the Beiyang Army. At the time of the 1911 Revolution, command of the Beiyang Army was supposedly in the hands of the Manchu minister Yinchang. In reality Yuan Shikai still had the ability to manipulate it due to the loyalties of its officer to him personally. Four divisions were located in Zhili, the 3rd Division being in Manchuria and the 5th Division in Shandong. Almost all the officers were ethnically Chinese, many of whom were returned students from Japan. Armament was not standardized, but was better in that respect than either before or later. Most of the infantry wre armed with either the standard 1896 Japanese rifle or the Mauser 7.9mm.

The 1911 Revolution

The events of the revolution demonstrated that the Beiyang Army, which formed the core of the 36-division New Army, was absolutely the dominant military force within China. Controlling the fragmented loyalties of its formations was the key to political power in post-1911 China. The insurrection which actually set off the 1911 Revolution took place in Wuchang on 10 October. On 12 October Yinchang was ordered to take two Beiyang Army divisions down the Beijing-Hankou Railway to suppress the uprising at Wuchang. He attacked the revolutionary army commanded by Huang Xing on 27 October.

Covered by their own field artillery and the guns of the imperial fleet, the Beiyang infantry attacked with a cloud of skirmishers followed by a line of close order company fronts. These textbook tactics were soon to be discredited in the intense fighting of the First World War, but against an undisciplined revolutionary with no machine guns, they worked perfectly.

On the same day Yuan Shikai was ordered to take command of the forces at Wuchang. He refused, instead securing high commands for his two most trusted associates, Feng Guochang and Duan Qirui. Fighting continued in Hubei for another month as Yuan negotiated with the dynasty and the revolutionaries using the Beiyang Army as weapon of coercion. The end result was that he was elected as provisional President of the Republic of China.

Beiyang clique in power (1911-15)

During the period 1911-15 Yuan Shikai remained the only man who could hold the Beiyang Army together. He and his followers strongly resisted any attempt by the Kuomintang (KMT) to inside outsider into their chain of command. They negotiated a �25 million (sterling) loan from a five-power banking consortium to support the Beiyang Army despite the uproar from the KMT. In 1913 Yuan Shikai appointed four of his loyal lieutenants as military governors in southern provinces: Duan Qirui in Anhui, Feng Guochang in Jiangsu, Li Shun in Jiangxi and Tang Xiangming in Hunan. The unified Beiyang military clique now attained its maximum extent of territorial control. It exercised firm control over North China and the Yangzi River provinces. Throughout 1914, it supported Yuan in making revisions to the constitution to give himself treaty- and war-making power as well as substantial emergency powers.

In December 1915 Yuan declared himself Emperor. This was opposed by almost all the generals and officers of the Beiyang Army, from Duan Qirui and Feng Guochang down. More importantly, many outlying provinces such as Yunnan openly opposed him. Yuan Shikai was forced to back down from his imperial designs. Both Duan and Feng refused to support Yuan in power any further and in the end the only prominent Beiyang general to remain loyal was the irrepressible Zhang Xun. Yuan died soon afterward. After Yuan Shikai's death the Beiyang Army split into cliques led by Yuan's principal proteges. Duan Qirui's Anhui clique and the Zhili clique founded by Feng Guochang, but led after Feng's death by Cao Kun and Wu Peifu, were the principal Beiyang cliques. Disunited, the power of the Beiyang Army was challenged by provincial armies such as Yan Xishan's forces in Shaanxi and Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian clique.

Fragmentation of the Beiyang army (1916-18)

Pressure from the Beiyang commanders prevented any political figure of the left from taking up power in the Republic of China government. For almost a decade after Yuan's death, the agenda of the leading Beiyang warlords was to reunify China by first reuniting the Beiyang Army and then conquering the lesser provincial armies.

For a period from mid-1916, the ultraconservative Beiyang general Zhang Xun managed to maintain the unity of the army via collegial contacts and negotiation. Like Yuan Shikai had done, the Beiyang generals used their military power to intimidate the parliament into passing the legislation they wanted. Following a dispute with President Li Yuanhong over a loan from Japan in early 1917, Duan Qirui declared independence from the government along with most of the other Beiyang generals. Zhang Xun then occupied Beijing with his army, and on 1 July shocked the Chinese political world by proclaiming the restoration of the Qing dynasty. All the other generals condemned this and the restoration soon collapsed. The elimination of Zhang Xun soon afterwards destroyed the balance of power between the rival factions of Feng and Duan and inaugurated a decade of high warlordism.

Feng Guochang went to Beijing to assume the presidency after securing the appointment of his protege as military commander in Jiangxi, Hubei and Jiangsu. These three provinces became the bases of strength of the Zhili military clique. Duan Qirui resumed his position of Prime Minister; his Anhui (sometimes called Anfu) clique dominated the Beijing area. Using Japanese funding to build up his so-called "War Participation Army", Duan continued to struggle with Feng Guochang.

Feng was eventually eliminated from political life in 1918, when Xu Shichang, the Beiyang elder statesman, became President. His deputy Cao Kun replaced him as leader of the Zhili clique. At the end of World War One, Duan dominated the Chinese representation at the Treaty of Versailles and used the Shanghai peace conference in 1919 to bring pressure on the non-Beiyang militarists supporting Sun Yat-sen's government in Guangzhou. He continued to receive Japanese funding for his army (renamed "National Defence Army"), for which he was willing to grant Japn legal succession to the German rights in Shandong (see May Fourth Movement).

High warlordism (1919-1925)

Before May-June 1919, some combination of fighting and negotiation among the major Beiyang leader was expected to lead to military unification, which in turn would permit the retoration of the constitutional political processes that Yuan Shikai had disrupted. By 1919 the three major northern military factions had cemented, two of them - Anhui and Zhili - directly from the Beiyang Army and the third - Fengtian, under Zhang Zuolin - from an amalgamation of Beiyang and local troops. They and their imitators on a smaller scale were willing to get money and arms from any source in order to survive and the weaker factions would combine against the stronger.

The history of the major warlord wars down to 1925 recount the failure of any of the military commanders in China to centralise political and military power to any degree. In a situation resembling the period of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, most of South China remained beyond Beiyang control, to become the incubator for both the KMT and Communist Party of China movements.

[Xeenslayer]

Good stuff, folks. It's all very informative. Thanks a lot. =)

I have a small question though. I've frequently heard of Zhili and first came across the name of this place while watching Zou xiang gong he. However, where really is this province? It seems so important. Its governors seemed to be the more prominent power-holders in late Qing. Examples were Li Hongzhang and Yuan Shikai. So, where is Zhili today? Or has it changed its name (because I never hear it being mentioned today)?

[astralis]

hey liang jieming,

great article. however, would like to make clear that the beiyang army and the "new army" are two different entities. the beiyang army was largely destroyed after the sino-japanese war of 1894-1895. for the period between that and the boxer uprising of 1901, china's armies were effectively fragmented and in total shambles. case in point, despite sending in chinese regulars to help the harmonious fists, the uprising couldn't even finish off the legation isolated in the middle of the capital. and then it was brushed away with not more than minor difficulty- the far larger japanese army had a good deal more trouble in 1894-5.

the new army was a result of that humiliating defeat, when the reformists finally started to go onto the ascendancy.

[Xeenslayer]

IIRC from what I watched and heard from the show "zou xiang gong he", apparently the New Army (yes, as it should be rightfully called) was also refered to as the Beiyang Army. I found it confusing at first too, but it made some sense to me as Yuan Shikai was originally Li Hongzhang's disciple and he took over the latter's position as the sole power controlling the army of the empire.

Clarifications, someone?... I'm a bit unsure as to which is correct.

*edit* I'm having a history exam tomorrow. Should they test us on pre-war China, I'll have a lot to talk about!

[Mike Blake]

Sorry to have come to this post so late in the day, but for whatit's worth here are some of my notes on the topic. I can supply a bibilography if anyone really wantes to follow-up - and check what is said back to source!

[Reformed, Disciplined or Trained Forces (Lien-chun)
‘The Chinese troops are vastly different even now from the undisciplined hordes which were opposed to the Allied troops in 1860. ...They are not capable of much cohesion yet, but the stand they made in Tientsin, and that they are still making in Manchuria, shows that there is grit in them, and that with scientific training they will prove themselves to be quite as good soldiers as the Japanese. That is the opinion of most soldiers who have practical experience of them.’
HC Thompson

Organisation
The central government sought to counterbalance the power which the control of the local troops placed in the hands of individuals. The Boards of War and Revenue established 6 disciplined Green Flag ‘armies’ (divisions) in Chihli, which became known as the Lien Chün (Disciplined or Trained Forces). They were to be armed with various modern firearms and drilled in the Western fashion.

The organization was copied from the Hunan and Anhwei armies. They were organised into ying (battalions), but internal structure varied considerably; for example just 100 infantry, or 300 infantry and 100 cavalry, or even as many as 500 infantry and 250 cavalry. Privates were also called Braves. All too often the only parts of the battalion kept up, however, were the flags and the coolies. During the Sino-Japanese War for a large number of battalions the average strength was 5 officers, 300 men and 150 coolies.

Rather confusingly, in a reflection of the often mixed infantry and cavalry organisation, a 1st class private was a Ma-ping, or horse-soldier, but did not necessarily have a horse. For example there were 8,000 ‘horse soldiers’ in Szechuan but only 4,000 had horses and in Kiangsu 3000 with 900 horses. A few of the cavalry regiments had carbines or rifles, but as late as 1898 the majority still had lances and bows. As was usual in China, few of the artillery had any specially training except some batteries in Chihli and Turkestan, and infantry were sent to man the guns when required. Those that were trained were used as mobile artilley units. Lien-chun troops were mainly used for garrisoning cities and strategic centres, and in the coastal forts the gunners were fairly well trained and generally good shots with the large artillery pieces.

Given the vast scale of the problem, caused by China’s immense size (both geographically and in population), nothing less than a complete reorganization of Chinese society and extensive industrialization were need to achieve the level of modernization wanted. Inevitably the attempts made were piecemeal, but actually a great deal was achieved. The most important development was the use of foreign personnel to train Chinese troops. In the 1870s Li Hung-chang had sent Chinese officers to Germany for training, and French and German officers trained a portion of these armies. Systematic training began in 1885, when Li established a military school with German instructors at Tientsin. Shortly afterwards, Chang Chih-tung founded a military academy near Canton.

By 1880 a few units had been equipped with foreign-style rifles and artillery. During the Franco-Chinese War 1884-5, notable for the success of a Chinese force against the French at the battle of Longsan, some modern coastal forts were built. In the Sino-Japanese War 1894-5, the Japanese estimated 3/5th of the Chinese troops mobilized against them were armed with some kind of rifle, the remainder having a pike, spear, or sword, a considerable achievement given the scale of the task.

China therefore possessed two armies, the Defence Army Fang Chün and the Disciplined Forces Lien Chün. The western-trained troops did not replace the traditional troops. They were used in combination, the Lien chun stiffening the Huai chun by providing additional fire-power and mobility, in an attempt to compensate for the latter’s deficiencies.

The lien-chun were technically under the control of the provincial commander-in-chief of the province in which they were stationed. The majority were in Chihli province and Li Hung-chung placed reliable Huai commanders of his choice in the post.
Officers

In a modern army there needs to be a highly integrated command system and officers must be replacable and transferable. In the Lien-chun the system was still based on a rigid relationship between officers and men, and everything depended on personal loyalty. The armament of the lien-chun changed but its spirit and command structure did not progress from its militia origins.

Officers of sufficient rank rode Mongol ‘hill’ ponies, with huge padded wooden saddles and large stirrups. More senior officers were still carried in chairs by 4 or 6 bearers. Some were rather rickety & covered in black oil cloth, others were smarter, covered in blue cloth and trimmed with braid and tassels. Generals had sedan chairs carried by 8 men, with an entourage of minor officials and servants on ponies, and flag bearers, musicians and guards.

I have some detailed TOE which are too long to post here.